GA Notes:"Indian Polity : Constitution Historical Background " For Railway & SSC Exams 2018-19

Constitution : Historical Background
1. Regulating Act of 1773(विनियमन अधिनियम 1773)
This act is of great constitutional importance as it laid the foundation of central administration in India. (यह अधिनियम संविधान के लिए एक बड़ा महत्व रखता है क्योंकि इसने ही केंद्रीय प्रशासन की नींव रखी.)

 Important Features of the Act (इस अधिनियम की मूल्य विशेषताएं):

It designated Governor of Bengal as the “Governor – General of Bengal”. “Lord Warren Hastings” Was the first Governor-General of Bengal. (इसके अंतर्गत बंगाल में ईस्ट इण्डिया कम्पनी के शासन के लिए एक परिषद् की स्थापना की गयी. परिषद् में चार सदस्य और एक गवर्नर जनरल था. सबसे पहला गवर्नर जनरल बना – –  वारेन हेस्टिंग्स. उसके पास अब बंगाल के फोर्ट विलियम के सैनिक और असैनिक प्रशासन के अधिकार थे.)
It provided for the establishment of a Supreme court at Calcutta in 1774.  (इसी अधिनियम के जरिये 1774 में कलकत्ता में एक सर्वोच्च न्यायालय की स्थापना हुई.)

2. Pitt’s India Act 1784 (पिट का भारत अधिनियम 1784)

This Act created a new body called “Board of control” which controlled all the political affairs of the East India company. (इस अधिनियम ने "नियंत्रण बोर्ड" नामक एक नया निकाय बनाया जो ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के सभी राजनीतिक मामलों को नियंत्रित करता है.)

3. Charter Act of 1813(चार्टर एक्ट 1813)

This Act ended the trade monopoly of East India company. (इस अधिनियम ने ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के व्यापार एकाधिकार को समाप्त कर दिया)

4. Charter Act of 1833 (चार्टर एक्ट 1833)

This act made Governor-General of Bengal as the “Governor-General of India”. “Lord William Bentick” was the 1st Governor-General of India. (इस अधिनियम ने "भारत के गवर्नर-जनरल" के रूप में बंगाल का गवर्नर जनरल बनाया."लॉर्ड विलियम बेंटिक" भारत के प्रथम गवर्नर-जनरल थे.)
For the 1st time Governor-General’s. Government was known as the “Government of India” (पहली बार गवर्नर-जनरल के लिए, सरकार "भारत सरकार" के रूप में जाना जाती थी.)

5) Charter Act of 1853 (चार्टर एक्ट 1853)

It separated the legislative and Executive functions of the Governor-General’s council. (यह गवर्नर-जनरल की परिषद के विधायी और कार्यकारी कार्यों को अलग करता है.)
Introduced an open competition system of selection and recruitment of Civil Servants. (सिविल नौकरियों के चयन और नियुक्ति की एक खुली प्रतियोगिता प्रणाली को आयोजित किया.)

6. Government of India Act, 1858 (भारत सरकार अधिनियम, 1858) →

This Act, abolished the East India Company and transferred the powers of government, territories and revenues to the British crown. (इस अधिनियम, ने ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी को समाप्त कर दिया गया और सरकारों, प्रदेशों और राजस्व की ताकत ब्रिटिश सत्ता को प्रदान कर दी.)
It changed the designation of the “Governor-General of India” to “Viceroy of India”. “Lord Canning” thus became the 1st Viceroy of India. (इसने "भारत के गवर्नर-जनरल" को "भारत के वायसराय" के पद में बदल दिया गया. और "लॉर्ड कैनिंग" भारत के पहले वाइसराय बने.)
It created a new office, called “Secretary of State for India”. Secretary of State has complete authority and Control over Indian administration. He was a member of British Parliament. It created a 15-member Council of India to assist secretary of State. ( इसे "भारत के सचिव राज्य" नामक एक नया कार्यालय बनाया. राज्य के सचिव का भारतीय प्रशासन पर पूर्ण अधिकार और नियंत्रण है. वह ब्रिटिश संसद के सदस्य थे. इसने राज्य के सचिव को सहायता के लिए 15 सदस्यों का एक परिषद बनाया.)

7. Indian Councils Act, 1861(भारतीय परिषद अधिनियम, 1861) →

It made a beginning of associating Indians with the law-making process. (इसने कानून बनाने की प्रक्रिया के साथ भारतीयों को जोड़ने की शुरुआत की)
It empowered viceroy to make rules and orders. (इसने नियम और कानून बनाने के अधिकार वायसराय को दिए)
It gave recognition to the “portfolio” system, introduced by Lord Conning is 1859. Under this a member of Viceroy’s Council was made in charge of one or more departments of the government and was authorized to issue final orders on behalf of the council on matters of his department. (इसने 1859 में लॉर्ड कॉनिंग द्वारा प्रस्तुत "पोर्टफोलियो" प्रणाली को मान्यता प्रदान की. इसके तहत वाइसराय परिषद के एक सदस्य को सरकार के एक या एक से अधिक विभागों का प्रभारी बनाया गया था और उनके विभाग के मामलों में उन्हें परिषद की तरफ से अंतिम आदेश जारी करने के लिए अधिकृत किया गया था)

8. Indian Council Act, 1892(भारतीय परिषद अधिनियम, 1892) →

It increased the number of additional members in the Central and provincial legislative Councils. (इसने मध्य और प्रांतीय विधायिका परिषदों में अतिरिक्त सदस्यों की संख्या में वृद्धि की)
It increased the functions of legislative councils and gave them the power of discussing the budget and addressing questions to the executive. ( इसने विधायी परिषदों के कार्यों में वृद्धि की और उन्हें बजट पर चर्चा करने और कार्यकारी को प्रश्न संबोधित करने की शक्ति प्रदान की)

9. Indian Council Act, 1909(भारतीय परिषद अधिनियम, 1909) →

This Act is Also known as Morley-Minto-Reforms. Lord Morley was the then Secretary of State for India and Lord Minto was Viceroy of India. ( इस अधिनियम को मोर्ले-मिंटो-रिफॉर्म्स के रूप में भी जाना जाता है. लॉर्ड मोर्ले भारत के तत्कालीन सचिव राज्य थे और लॉर्ड मिंटो भारत के वायसराय थे)
The number of members in the Central Legislative Council was raised from 16 to 60. (केन्द्रीय विधान परिषद में सदस्यों की संख्या 16 से बढ़कर 60 हो गई थी)
It provided for the association of Indians with the Executive Councils of the Viceroy and Governors. Satyendra Prashad Sinha became the 1st Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council. He was appointed as the law member. (यह वाइसराय और गवर्नर्स के कार्यकारी परिषदों के साथ भारतीयों के संघ के लिए प्रदान किया गया था. वाइसरॉय की कार्यकारी परिषद में शामिल होने के लिए सत्येंद्र प्रसाद सिन्हा प्रथम भारतीय बने. उसे कानून सदस्य के रूप में नियुक्त किया गया था)
It introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims by accepting the concept of “separate electorate”. Under this Muslim member is to be elected only by Muslim Voters. “Lord Minto” came to be known as the “Father of Communal Electorate. ( इसमें "पृथक निर्वाचन" की अवधारणा को स्वीकार करके मुस्लिमों के लिए सांप्रदायिक प्रतिनिधित्व की एक प्रणाली शुरू की. इसके तहत मुस्लिम सदस्यों को केवल मुस्लिम मतदाता द्वारा ही चुना जाना था. "लॉर्ड मिंटो" को "सांप्रदायिक निर्वाचन के पिता" के रूप में जाना जाने लगा).

10. Government of India Act, 1919 (भारत सरकार अधिनियम, 1919)

This Act is also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms. Mr. E.S Montagu was the secretary of State of India and the Governor General was Lord Chelmsford. ( इस अधिनियम को मोंटेगु-चेम्सफोर्ड सुधार के रूप में भी जाना जाता है. श्री ईएस मॉन्टेगु को भारत राज्य के सचिव और लॉर्ड चेम्सफोर्ड गर्वनर जनरल थे)
It divided subject of administration into two categories Central & Provincial. It further divided Provincial Subjects into two parts → transferred & reserved. This dual scheme of governance was known as “dyarchy” means dual Government (इसने प्रशाशन को दो भागों में बांट दिया मध्य और प्रांतीय. इसके आगे प्रांतीय विषयों को दो भागों में विभाजित किया गया  → स्थानांतरित और आरक्षित. शासन की इस दोहरी योजना को "द्वैयासी" के रूप में जाना जाता है जिसका अर्थ है दोहरी सरकार)
For the first time, It introduced, bicameralism and direct Elections in the country. ( पहली बार इसने, देश में द्विपक्षीय और प्रत्यक्ष चुनाव की शुरुआत की)
It provided separate Electorates for Sikhs. (इसने सिखों के लिए पृथक मतदाता प्रदान किये)
It provided for establishment of a public Service Commission. A central Public Service Commission was set up in 1926 for recruiting Civil Servants. (यह सार्वजनिक सेवा आयोग की स्थापना के लिए प्रदान किया गया था. सिविल सेवकों की भर्ती के लिए 1926 में एक केंद्रीय लोक सेवा आयोग की स्थापना की गई थी)
It separated, for the 1st time provincial Budget from the Central Budget. (इसने पहली बार प्रांतीय बजट को केंद्रीय बजट से अलग किया)

11. Simon Commission (साइमन कमीशन)

In November 1927, British government setup a commission headed by Sir John Simon to inquire into the working of Government of India, 1919. (नवंबर 1927 में, ब्रिटिश सरकार ने भारत सरकार 1919 के कामकाज की जांच के लिए सर जॉन साइमन की अध्यक्षता में आयोग का गठन किया गया)

12. Communal Award (सांप्रदायिक पुरस्कार)

In, August 1932, Ramsay Macdonald, the British Prime Minister, announced a scheme of Representation of minorities., which is known as Communal Award. It also extended it for depressed classes (Scheduled Castes). (अगस्त 1932 में ब्रिटिश प्रधान मंत्री रामसे मैकडोनाल्ड ने अल्पसंख्यकों के प्रतिनिधित्व की एक योजना की घोषणा की, जो कि सांप्रदायिक पुरस्कार के रूप में जाना जाता है. उन्होंने इसे दलित वर्गों के लिए भी विस्तृत किया.)

13. Government of India Act, 1935(भारत सरकार अधिनियम, 1935)

It provided for the establishment of an All-India Federation consisting of provinces and princely status as units. The Act divided the powers between the Center and units is term of → Federal list, Provincial list, Concurrent list. (इसके तहत एक अखिल भारतीय संघ की स्थापना कि गई जिसमें प्रांतों और रियासतों को एक इकाई में रखा गया. अधिनियम ने केंद्र और इकाइयों के मध्य → संघीय सूची, प्रांतीय सूची, समवर्ती सूची के रूप में शक्तियों को विभाजित किया)
It abolished dyarchy in the provinces. ( इसने प्रांतों में पितृसत्ता खत्म कर दी)
It introduced bicameralism in six provinces. ( इसने छह प्रांतों में द्विवृत्तांतवाद पेश किया)
It abolished Council of India. ( इसने भारत की परिषद को समाप्त कर दिया)
It provided for the establishment of a Central Bank of India to Control the currency and Credit of the country. ( देश के मुद्रा और ऋण को नियंत्रित करने के लिए इसके द्वारा सेंट्रल बैंक ऑफ इंडिया की स्थापना कि गई)
It provided for the establishment of a federal Court, which was setup in 1937. (इसे एक संघीय न्यायालय की स्थापना के लिए प्रदान किया गया था, जो 1937 में स्थापित किया गया था).

14. Cripps Mission (क्रिप्स मिशन)

In March 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps, came with a draft decleration on the proposals of the British Government. ( मार्च 1942 में, सर स्टैफोर्ड क्रिप्स, ब्रिटिश सरकार के प्रस्तावों पर एक मसौदा घोषणा के साथ आया था)

According to the proposals. (प्रस्तावों के मुताबिक)

Constitution of India was to be framed by an elected Constituent Assembly (निर्वाचित संविधान सभा द्वारा भारत का संविधान तैयार किया जाना था)
The Constitution should give India Dominion Status. (संविधान द्वार भारत को डोमिनियन स्थिति दी जानी चाहिए)

15. Cabinet Mission Plan(कैबिनेट मिशन योजना)

In March 1946, Lord Attlee sent a Cabinet Mission to India consisting to three Cabinet Ministers. (मार्च 1946 में, लॉर्ड अटली ने तीन कैबिनेट मंत्रियों से मिलकर भारत में एक कैबिनेट मिशन भेजा)
The objective of the Mission was to help India achieve its independence as early as possible. ( मिशन का उद्देश्य जितनी जल्दी हो सके भारत को अपनी स्वतंत्रता प्राप्त करने में सहायता करना था)

16. Mountbatten Plan (माउंटबेटन योजना)

Plan of transfer of power to the Indians and partition of the country was laid down in the Mountbatten Plan. ( भारतीयों को सत्ता के हस्तांतरण की योजना और देश के विभाजन को माउंटबेटन योजना द्वारा निर्धारित किया गया था)

17. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 (भारतीय स्वतंत्रता अधिनियम, 1947)

From 15th August 1947 India ceased to be a dependency and the suzerainty of the British Crown. (15 अगस्त 1947 से, भारत ब्रिटिश शासन की निर्भरता और परिसीमा से छूट गया था)

GA Notes:"Writs In Indian Constitution" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018

Writs In Indian Constitution
The Constitution has constituted the Supreme Court as the guarantor and defender of the fundamental rights of the citizens. These writs are borrowed from English law where they are known as ‘prerogative writs’. The Supreme Court (under Article 32) and the high courts (under Article 226) can issue the writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari and quo-warranto. Any individual, whose fundamental right has been violated, can directly move the Supreme Court for remedy. (Note-the Parliament (under Article 32) can empower any other court to issue these writs.)
Points to Remember:

The Supreme Court can issue writs only for the enforcement of fundamental rights whereas a high court can issue writs not only for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights but also for any other purpose.
A remedy under Article 32 is in itself a Fundamental Right and hence, the Supreme Court may not refuse to exercise its writ jurisdiction.
On the other hand, a remedy under Article 226 is discretionary and hence, a high court may refuse to exercise its writ jurisdiction.

Let's proceed to understand the meaning and scope of different kinds of writs mentioned in Articles 32 and 226 of the Constitution. There are five types of writs under Indian constitution.

1.Habeas Corpus
2.Mandamus
3.Certiorari
4.Prohibition
5.Quo-warranto

1. Habeas Corpus -

It is a Latin term which literally means ‘to have the body of’.
It is an order issued by the court to a person who has detained another person, to produce the body of the latter before it. The court then examines the cause and legality of detention.
This writ is a bulwark of individual liberty against arbitrary detention.
The writ of habeas corpus can be issued against both public authorities as well as private individuals.

2. Mandamus-

It literally means ‘we command’.
It is a command issued by the court to a public official asking him to perform his official duties that he has failed or refused to perform.
It can also be issued against any public body, a corporation, an inferior court, a tribunal or government for the same purpose.

3. Prohibition-

It literally, it means ‘to forbid’.
It is issued by a higher court to a lower court or tribunal to prevent the latter from exceeding its jurisdiction or usurping a jurisdiction that it does not possess.
The writ of prohibition can be issued only against judicial and quasi-judicial authorities.

4. Certiorari-

In the literal sense, it means ‘to be certified’ or ‘to be informed’.
It is issued by a higher court to a lower court or tribunal either to transfer a case pending with the latter to itself or to squash the order of the latter in a case.
It is issued on the grounds of excess of jurisdiction or lack of jurisdiction or error of law.

Note-
Previously, the writ of certiorari could be issued only against judicial and quasi-judicial authorities and not against administrative authories. However, in 1991, the Supreme Court ruled that the certiorari can be issued even against administrative authorities affecting rights of individuals.

5. Quo-Warranto-

In the literal sense, it means ‘by what authority or warrant’.
It is issued by the court to enquire into the legality of claim of a person to a public office.
It prevents illegal usurpation of public office by a person.
The writ can be issued only in case of a substantive public office of a permanent character created by a statute or by the Constitution.

GA Notes: Governor of States in India for Govt. Exams

STATE GOVERNMENT
Governor
Powers of Governor
Executive Powers:
•All executive actions of the state are to be taken in the name of the Governor. He acts as a representative of President in the state.
•He has power to recommend President that the government of the state cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. This leads to the imposition of President rule in the State under Article 356.
•All major appointments in the state are made by the Governor.
•He is the Chancellor of various universities in the state and appoints their Vice-Chancellors.

Legislative Powers:
•He summons the house(s) of the legislature of state.
Note: 6 months must not lapse between the last sitting in one session and the first in the next session.
•He may prorogue the house(s) and dissolve the legislative assembly.
•He has right to reserve certain bills for the assent of the President [Article 200].
•He nominates 1/6th of the members of Legislative Council having special knowledge in literature, science, arts, cooperative movement and social service.
•Decides on the question of disqualification of a member of State Legislature in consultation with Election Commission.
•His most important power is the ordinance making power [Article 213].
•The ordinances have to be approved by the state legislature.
•Submission of reports from Auditor General, State Public Service Commission, State Finance Commission, etc. before the Legislature.

Discretionary Powers:
•Though in most of the matters he has to act on the advice of Council of Ministers, but there are some matters in which he can act according to his discretion.
•He selects the CM if no party has clear-cut majority.
•Dismissal of Ministry if he is convinced that it has lost majority support.
•Dissolving the Legislative Assembly.
•Reservation of certain bills for the consideration of the President (Article 200).
•Submission of report to the President regarding failure of constitutional machinery in the State.

Financial Powers:
•A money bill cannot be introduced in the Legislative Assembly of the State without the recommendation of the Governor.
•No demand of grants can be made except on the recommendation of the Governor.
•The Governor introduces “annual financial statements”, that is “Budget” before the house or houses of the legislature [Article 202].
•He constitutes a finance commission after every five years to review the financial position of the panchyats and the municipalities.
•He can make advances out of the Contingency Fund of the state to meet any unforeseen expenditure.

Judicial Powers:
•He can grant pardons, reprieves, respites and remissions of punishment or suspend, remit and commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the state extends.
•He is consulted by the president while appointing the judges of the concerned state high court.
•He makes appointments, postings and promotions of the district judges in consultation with the state high court.
•He also appoints persons to the judicial service of the state (other than district judges) in consultation with the state high court and the State Public Service Commission.

GA Notes:"CITIZENSHIP in Indian Constitution" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018

CITIZENSHIP in Indian Constitution
Part II of the Constitution of India (Articles 5-11) deals with the Citizenship of India.
Articles related to citizenship are as follows:-
Article 5: Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution

Article 6: Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan

Article 7: Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan

Article 8: Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India

Article 9: Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens

Article 10: Continuance of the rights of citizenship

Article 11: Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law


CITIZENSHIP OF INDIA AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION:

1. At the commencement of this Constitution, every person who has his domicile in the territory of India and—
(a) who was born in the territory of India; or
(b) either of whose parents was born in the territory of India; or
(c) who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not less than five years immediately preceding such commencement, shall be a citizen of India. (Article-5)

2. Persons who migrated to India from Pakistan before 19 July, 1948 and since then have been ordinarily residing in India.

3. Persons who migrate to India from Pakistan on or after 19 July, 1948 but got themselves, duly registered as citizen with a competent officer appointed for that purpose.

4. Persons who migrated to Pakistan after 1st March, 1947 but returned to India under a permit for resettlement.

5. Any person who or either of whose parents or any of whose grandparents was born in India.

The Constitution makes use of the words ‘domicile’ and ‘residence’. The basic idea of domicile is permanent home. Residence in the country and the intention to make it his home are necessary to constitute a domicile.

ACQUISITION OF INDIAN CITIZENSHIP UNDER THE CITIZENSHIP ACT 1955:

The legislation related to this matter is the Citizenship Act 1955. In exercise of its power the Parliament has enacted the Indian Citizenship Act, 1955. This Act provides for the acquisition and loss of Indian citizenship after the commencement of the Constitution. It has been amended by the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1986, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1992, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003, and the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2005.

Acquisition of Indian Citizenship as per Citizenship Act 1955: Indian Citizenship can be acquired under the following ways -
(1) Citizenship by birth
(2) Citizenship by descent
(3) Citizenship by registration
(4) Citizenship by naturalization
(5) Citizenship by incorporation of territory

LOSS OF INDIAN CITIZENSHIP:

As per Citizenship Act 1955 one can lose citizenship of India in three ways – Renunciation, Termination and Deprivation.

1. Renunciation is a voluntary act by which a person after acquiring the citizenship of another country gives up his Indian citizenship.

2. Termination takes place by operation of law. When an India citizen voluntarily acquires the citizenship of another country, he automatically ceases to be an Indian citizen.

3. Deprivation is a compulsory termination of the citizenship of India obtained by Registration or Naturalization. The citizenship is deprived on the basis of an order of the Government of India, in cases involving acquisition of India citizenship by fraud, false representation and concealment of material fact or being disloyal to the Constitution etc.

GA Notes :Notes on Important Amendments Of The Indian Constitution

IMPORTANT AMENDMENTS OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

To evolve and change with all changes in the society and environment is a necessity for every constitution.The makers of the Constitution of India laid down a flexible amendment method in respect of its some parts and for several others they provided for a rigid method.

Part XX of the Constitution of India has only one article that is Article 368 that deals with the amendment of the Constitution.  As per this article, Parliament may add, amend or repeal any provision of the constitution as per the procedure laid down for this purpose. However, in the Kesavanand Bharati Case 1973, the Supreme Court has ruled that the Parliament cannot amend those provisions which constitute the Basic Structure of the Constitution.

The article 368 provides for three types of amendments:

1. Amendment by simple majority of the parliament:
These bills are passed by both Houses of Parliament by a simple majority of members present and voting.

2. Amendment by special majority of the parliament:
The majority of the provisions in the Constitution need to be amended by a special majority of the Parliament, that is, a majority (that is, more than 50 per cent) of the total membership of each House and a majority of two-thirds of the members of each House present and voting. The expression ‘total membership’ means the total number of members comprising the House irrespective of fact whether there are vacancies or absentees.

The provisions which can be amended by this way include:

- Fundamental Rights

- Directive Principles of State Policy

- All other provisions which are not covered by the first and third categories.

3.Amendment by special majority of the parliament and the ratification of half of the state legislatures:
Those provisions of the Constitution which are related to the federal structure of the polity can be amended by a special majority of the Parliament and also with the consent of half of the state legislatures by a simple majority.

The provisions which can be amended by this way include:

- Election of the President and its manner.

- Extent of the executive power of the Union and the states.

- Supreme Court and high courts.

- Distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the states.

- Any of the lists in the Seventh Schedule.

- Representation of states in Parliament.

- Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and its procedure (Article 368 itself).

Some Important Amendments of The Indian  Constitution

7th Amendment (1956) – States Reorganization Act 1956 on the linguistic basis and abolition of Class A, B, C, D states.
14th Amendment (1962) - Pondicherry incorporated into Indian Union after transfer by France.
26th Amendment (1971) – Abolition of Privy Purse paid to the former ruler of states.
31st Amendment Act (1973) - Increased the elective strength of the Lok Sabha from 525 to 545. Under the Act, the upper limit of representatives of the States goes up from 500 to 525 and that of the Union Territories decreases from 25 to 20.
36th Amendment (1975) – Sikkim included as an Indian State
42nd Amendment Act(1976)- Fundamental Duties Prescribed, It is known as “mini-Constitution” or the “Constitution of Indira”. It is due to the Forty-second Amendment to the Indian Constitution that India became a Socialist, Secular and Democratic Republic. Changes were made to almost every part of the Constitution which includes the Preamble too. It was enacted during the period of internal emergency. It was passed by Parliament on November 11, 1976 and received Presidential assent on December 18, 1976.
44th Amendment Act (1978) - Right to Property deleted from the list of fundamental rights.
52nd Amendment (1985)- Defection to another party after election made illegal.
55th Amendment Act (1987) - It grants Statehood to Arunachal Pradesh which consequently became the 24th State of the Indian Union.
56th Amendment Act (1987) - It confers Statehood on Goa and forms a new Union Territory of Daman and Diu. Goa thus became the 25th State of the Indian Republic.
61st Amendment (1989)- Voting age reduced from 21 to 18
73rd Amendment (1993) – Introduction of Panchayati Raj, the addition of Part IX to the Constitution.
74th Amendment ( 1993) - Introduction of Nagarpalikas and Municipalities
86th Amendment (2002) – Right to Education(Free and compulsory education to children between 6 and 14 years)
101st Amendment (2016) - Introduction of GST,under this amendment, the Goods and Service Tax was introduced in India on July 1, 2017.

GA Notes :Notes on Indian Constitution Parts and Schedules

Indian Constitution Parts and Schedules

 

Originally the constitution contained 395 articles divided in 22 parts and 8 schedules.At present there are, 448 articles in 25 parts, 12 schedules. The numbering still remains the same but as and when the constitution is amended, new articles are added below original articles with suffix A, B, C etc. For example, when our constitution was amended for adjusting the Right to Education, a new Article 21A was inserted below Article 21.

Parts of Indian Constitution:

Part	Subject	Articles
Part I	The Union and its territory	Art. 1 to 4
Part II	Citizenship	Art. 5 to 11
Part III	Fundamental Rights	Art. 12 to 35
Part IV	Directive Principles	Art. 36 to 51
Part IVA	Fundamental Duties	Art. 51A
Part V	The Union Chapter I - The Executive (Art.52 to 78) Chapter II - Parliament (Art.79 to 122) Chapter III - Legislative Powers of President (Art.123) Chapter IV - The Union Judiciary (Art. 124 to 147) Chapter V - Comptroller and Auditor-General of India (Art.148 to 151)	Art. 52 to 151
Part VI	The States Chapter I - General (Art.152) Chapter II - The Executive (Art.153 to 167) Chapter III - The State Legislature (Art.168 to 212) Chapter IV - Legislative Powers of Governor (Art.213) Chapter V - The High Courts (Art.214 to 232) Chapter VI - Subordinate Courts (Art.233 to 237)	Art. 152 to 237
Part VII	States in the B part of the First schedule Repealed by Const. (7th Amendment) Act, 1956
Part VIII	The Union Territories	Art. 239 to 242
Part IX	The Panchayats	Art. 243 to 243O
Part IXA	The Muncipalities	Art. 243P to 243ZG
Part IXB	Co-operative Societies	Art. 243H to 243ZT
Part X	The Scheduled and Tribal Areas	Art. 244 to 244A
Part XI	Relations between the Union and the States Chapter I - Legislative Relations (Art.245 to 255) Chapter II - Administrative Relations (Art.256 to 263)	Art. 245 to 263
Part XII	Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits Chapter I - Finance (Art.264 to 291) Chapter II - Borrowing (Art.292 to 293) Chapter III - Property, Contracts, Rights, Liabilities, Obligations and Suits (Art.294 to 300) Chapter IV - Right to Property (Art.300-A)	Art. 264 to 300A
Part XIII	Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the Territory of India	Art. 301 to 307
Part XIV	Services under the Union and the States	Art. 308 to 323
Part XIVA	Tribunals	Art. 323A to 323B
Part XV	Elections	Art. 324 to 329A
Part XVI	Special provisions relation to certain classes	Art. 330 to 342
Part XVII	Official Language Chapter I - Language of the Union (Art.343 to 344) Chapter II - Regional Languages (Art.345 to 347) Chapter III-Language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and so on (Art.348 to 349) Chapter IV-Special Directives (Art.350 to 351)	Art. 343 to 351
Part XVIII	Emergency Provisions	Art. 352 to 360
Part XIX	Miscellaneous	Art. 361 to 367
Part XX	Amendment of the Constitution	Art. 368
Part XXI	Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions	Art. 369 to 392
Part XXII	Short title, commencement, authoritative text in Hindi and repeals	Art. 393 to 395

Indian Constitution Schedules:

Indian Constitution originally had eight schedules. Four more schedules were added by different amendments, now making a total tally of twelve. Schedules are basically tables which contains additional details not mentioned in the articles.

Indian Constitution Schedules 1 to 12
First schedule - The list of states and union territories and their territories
Second schedule - Provisions of the President, Governors of States, Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House of the People and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State, the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts and the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India the list of states and union territories and their territories.
Third Schedule - The Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.
Fourth Schedule - Provisions as to the allocation of seats in the Council of States.
Fifth Schedule - Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
Sixth Schedule - Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
Seventh Schedule - The Union list, State list and the concurrent list.
Eighth Schedule - The list of recognized languages.
Ninth Schedule - Provisions as to validation of certain Acts and Regulations.
Tenth Schedule - Provisions as to disqualification on ground of defection.
Eleventh Schedule - The powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.
Twelfth Schedule - The powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities.

GA Notes : Important Facts about Article 35A

Important Facts about Article 35A
अनुच्छेद 35A  के बारे में महत्वपूर्ण तथ्य
Article 35A was incorporated into the Constitution in 1954 by an order of the then President Rajendra Prasad on the advice of the Jawaharlal Nehru Cabinet.
जवाहरलाल नेहरू कैबिनेट की सलाह पर तत्कालीन राष्ट्रपति राजेंद्र प्रसाद के आदेश से 1954 में अनुच्छेद 35 A को संविधान शामिल किया गया था.

It is a constitutional provision that allows the Jammu-Kashmir assembly to define permanent residents of the state.
यह एक संवैधानिक प्रावधान है जो जम्मू-कश्मीर विधानसभा को राज्य के स्थायी निवासियों को परिभाषित करने की अनुमति देता है.

The 1952 Delhi Agreement between Nehru and the then Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir Sheikh Abdullah, extended Indian citizenship to the ‘State subjects’ of Jammu and Kashmir.
नेहरु और जम्मू-कश्मीर के तत्कालीन प्रधान मंत्री शेख अब्दुल्ला के बीच हुए 1952 के दिल्ली समझौते ने जम्मू-कश्मीर के 'राज्य विषयों' की भारतीय नागरिकता विस्तारित की थी.

Note:
The Presidential Order was issued under Article 370 (1) (d) of the Constitution. The state of Jammu & Kashmir has been accorded special status under Article 370.
नोट: राष्ट्रपति आदेश को संविधान के अनुच्छेद 370 (1) (d) के तहत जारी किया गया था. अनुच्छेद 370 के तहत जम्मू-कश्मीर राज्य को विशेष दर्जा दिया गया है.

The provision mandates that no act of the legislature coming under it can be challenged for violating the Constitution or any other law of the land.
प्रावधान यह अनिवार्य करता है कि इसके तहत आने वाले विधायिका का कोई भी अधिनियम संविधान या देश के किसी अन्य कानून का उल्लंघन करने के लिए चुनौती नहीं दी जा सकती है.

According to the Jammu-Kashmir constitution, a Permanent Resident is defined as a person who was a state subject on May 14, 1954, or who has been residing in the state for a period of 10 years and has “lawfully acquired immovable property in the state”.
जम्मू-कश्मीर संविधान के अनुसार, एक स्थायी निवासी को उस व्यक्ति के रूप में परिभाषित किया गया है जो 14 मई, 1954 को राज्य विषय था, या जो 10 वर्षों की अवधि के लिए राज्य में रह रहा है और जिसे "राज्य में कानूनी रूप से अचल संपत्ति प्राप्त है ".

What Article 35A says:
अनुच्छेद 35A क्या कहता है:

" Saving of laws with respect to permanent residents and their rights. — Notwithstanding anything contained in this Constitution, no existing law in force in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, and no law hereafter enacted by the Legislature of the State:
स्थायी निवासियों और उनके अधिकारों के संबंध में कानूनों की सुरक्षा. — इस संविधान में कुछ भी निहित होने के बावजूद, जम्मू-कश्मीर राज्य में कोई मौजूदा कानून लागू नहीं है, और इसके बाद राज्य के विधानमंडल द्वारा अधिनियमित कोई कानून भी नहीं है.

(a) defining the classes of persons who are, or shall be, permanent residents of the State of Jammu and Kashmir; or
यह ऐसे व्यक्तियों के वर्गों को परिभाषित करता है जो जम्मू-कश्मीर राज्य के स्थायी निवासी हैं, या हो सकते है; या

(b) conferring on such permanent residents any special rights and privileges or imposing upon other persons any restrictions as respects—
ऐसे स्थायी निवासियों को किसी भी विशेष अधिकार और विशेषाधिकार या विषय में अन्य व्यक्तियों को सम्मान के रूप में किसी भी प्रतिबंध लगाते हुए-

(i) employment under the State Government;
राज्य सरकार के तहत रोजगार;
(ii) acquisition of immovable property in the State;
राज्य में अचल संपत्ति का अधिग्रहण;
(iii) settlement in the State; or
राज्य में निपटान; या
(iv) right to scholarships and such other forms of aid as the State Government may provide,shall be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with or takes away or abridges any rights conferred on the other citizens of India by any provision of this part."
छात्रवृत्ति के अधिकार और ऐसे अन्य रूपों की सहायता राज्य सरकार प्रदान कर सकती है, चाहे जमीनी स्तर पर शून्य हो जाए जोकि यह इस भाग के किसी भी प्रावधान द्वारा भारत के अन्य नागरिकों को दिए गए किसी भी अधिकार के साथ यह असंगत या दूर या संक्षिप्त है.

Impacts of Article 35A:
अनुच्छेद 35A के प्रभाव:

-Non-residents of the Jammu & Kashmir are debarred from buying properties, getting a government job or voting in the elections
जम्मू-कश्मीर के गैर-निवासियों को संपत्ति खरीदने, सरकारी नौकरी पाने या चुनाव में मतदान करने से वंचित कर दिया गया.

-The industrial sector and the whole private sector suffers due to the property ownership restrictions. Good doctors and experienced engineers and teachers do not come to the state for the same reason
औद्योगिक क्षेत्र और पूरा निजी क्षेत्र संपत्ति स्वामित्व प्रतिबंधों के कारण पीड़ित है. अच्छे डॉक्टर और अनुभवी इंजीनियरों और शिक्षक इसी कारण से राज्य में नहीं आते हैं

-The impugned provision facilitates a violation of the right of a woman to ‘marry a man of her choice’ by not giving her heirs any right to property if she marries a man not holding Permanent Resident Certificate(PRC)
प्रयुक्त प्रावधान एक महिला के अधिकार का उल्लंघन करने की 'अपनी पसंद के एक आदमी से शादी' करने की सुविधा प्रदान करता है जिसमें यदि वह एक ऐसे व्यक्ति से शादी करती है जिसके पास स्थायी निवासी प्रमाणपत्र (PRC) नहीं है तो उसके वारिस को संपत्ति का कोई अधिकार नहीं दिया जाता.

-Children of other states are not even entitled to admission in the medial, engineering and professional colleges and universities
अन्य राज्यों के बच्चे भी मध्यस्थ, इंजीनियरिंग और पेशेवर कॉलेजों और विश्वविद्यालयों में प्रवेश के स्वत्वाधिकारी नहीं हैं.


Note:
Article 35A was not inserted by following the due procedure prescribed for the amendment of the Constitution under Article 368.
अनुच्छेद 368 के तहत संविधान के संशोधन के लिए निर्धारित प्रक्रिया के बाद अनुच्छेद 35 A को शामिल नहीं किया गया था.

Why in news:
खबर में क्यों:

-A writ petition filed by NGO We the Citizens challenging the validity of both Article 35A and Article 370.
NGO We the Citizens द्वारा दायर एक रिट याचिका अनुच्छेद 35A  और अनुच्छेद 370 दोनों की वैधता को चुनौती दे रही है.

-A second petition filed by Jammu and Kashmir native Charu Wali Khanna.
दूसरी याचिका जम्मू-कश्मीर के मूल निवासी चारू वाली खन्ना द्वारा दायर की गयी.