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Home → GA Notes
Showing posts with label GA Notes. Show all posts
Showing posts with label GA Notes. Show all posts

GA Notes:”SOCIAL REFORMERS AND SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS” For Railway & SSC Exams

00:34
SOCIAL REFORMERS AND SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
Social reformars like Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Sarawathi and Swami Vivekananda were responsible for the social and cultural awakening in India. Various movements started by them introduced important changes in social and religious life of the people of India.
Let us discuss some important socio-religious reform movements-
Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj:

In order to purify Hinduism and to preach monotheism Raja Rammohan Roy established the Brahmo Samaj at Calcutta in 1828 .
Popularly known as the “Maker of Modern India” and “Father of Modern India”, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a social and educational reformer, was an idealist who contributed immensely in eradicating social evils prevalent in the society during the 18th century.
He is considered as the first ‘modern man of India’.
He was a pioneer of socio-religious reform movements in modern India.
In 1815, he established the Atmiya Sabha.
Later, it was developed into the Brahmo Sabha in August 1828.
The work of the Atmiya Sabha was carried on by Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore), who renamed it as Brahmo Samaj.
Raj Rammohan Roy is most remembered for helping Lord William Bentinck to declare the practice of Sati a punishable offence in 1829.
He also protested against the child marriage and female infanticide.
He favored the remarriage of widows, female education and women’s right to property.
In 1817, he founded the Hindu College along with David Hare, a missionary. He also set up schools for girls.
Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly Samvad Kaumudi and edited a Persian weekly Mirat-ul-akhbar.
Henry Vivian Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement:

Henry Vivian Derozio was the founder of the Young Bengal Movement.
His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement the Young Bengal Movement.
They attacked old traditions and decadent customs.
They also advocated women’s rights and their education.
Swami Dayanand Saraswathi and the Arya Samaj:

The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswathi at Bombay in 1875.
His motto was “Back to the Vedas” because he believed the Vedas were the source of true knowledge.
He started the Suddhi movement to bring back those Hindus who had converted to other religions to its fold.
He wrote the book Satyartha Prakash which contains his ideas.
The first Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School was founded in 1886 at Lahore.
Prarthana Samaj:

The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang.
It was a reform movement within Hinduism and concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-marriage, widow remarriage and uplift of women and depressed classes.
Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused new strength to it.
Justice Ranade promoted the Deccan Education Society.
Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission:

The original name of Swami Vivekananda was Narendranath Dutta and he became the most famous disciple of Shri Ramkrishna Paramahamsa.
He founded the Ramkrishna Mission at Belur in Howrah in 1897.
He condemned the caste system and the current Hindu emphasis on rituals and ceremonies.
Swami Vivekananda participated at the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago (USA) in September 1893 and raised the prestige of India and Hinduism very high.
Vivekananda preached the message of strength and self reliance.
Theosophical Society:

The Theosophical Society was founded in New York (USA) in 1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky, a Russian lady, and Henry Steel Olcott, an American colonel.
Their main objectives were to form a universal brotherhood of man without any distinction of race, colour or creed and to promote the study of ancient religions and philosophies.
They established their headquarters at Adyar in Madras in 1882.
Later in 1893, Mrs. Annie Besant arrived in India and took over the leadership of the Society after the death of Olcott.
Mrs. Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu School along with Madan Mohan Malaviya at Benaras which later developed into the Banaras Hindu University.
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar:

Pandit Ishwar Chandra was a great educator, humanist and social reformer.
Vidyasagar founded many schools for girls.
He helped J.D. Bethune to establish the Bethune School.
He founded the Metropolitan Institution in Calcutta.
He protested against child marriage and favoured widow remarriage which was legalised by the Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodak Samaj:

Jyotiba Phule belonged to a low caste family in Maharashtra.
In 1873 he founded the Satyashodak Samaj to fight against the caste system.
He pioneered the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra and worked for the education for women.
Jyotiba Phule and his wife established the first girls’ school at Poona in 1851.

GA Notes - National Science Day

06:48
National Science Day
28th February is celebrated as National Science Day (NSD) in India. National Science Day is celebrated to commemorate discovery of the ‘Raman Effect’, which led to Sir C.V. Raman winning the Noble Prize. This was the first Nobel Prize for India in the field of Science.

The theme of National Science Day -2019 is “Science for the People and the People for Science”.

In 1986, the National Council for Science and Technology Communication (NCSTC) asked the Government of India to designate 28 February as National Science Day which the then Govt. of India accepted and declared the day as National Science Day in 1986.National Council for Science & Technology Communication (NCSTC) of Department of Science & Technology (DST) is nodal agency to support catalyze and coordinate celebration of the NSD throughout the country, particularly in scientific institutions & research laboratories. The first National Science Day was celebrated on February 28, 1987.

Raman Effect is a phenomenon in spectroscopy discovered by the eminent physicist Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman in 1928. Raman Effect is a change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules.

Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman had worked from 1907 to 1933 at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Kolkata, West Bengal in India during which he had researched on many topics of the Physics from which the Raman Effect (effect on scattering of light when passing through different materials) became his great success and discovery which has been marked in the Indian history.

Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1954 for his contribution in science especially Physics.
From the year 2013, the “Raman Effect” has been designated as an International Historic Chemical Landmark by The American Chemical Society.

GA Notes:”CITIZENSHIP in Indian Constitution” For Railway & SSC Exams

04:39
CITIZENSHIP in Indian Constitution
Part II of the Constitution of India (Articles 5-11) deals with the Citizenship of India.
Articles related to citizenship are as follows:-
Article 5: Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution

Article 6: Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan

Article 7: Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan

Article 8: Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India

Article 9: Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens

Article 10: Continuance of the rights of citizenship

Article 11: Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law

CITIZENSHIP OF INDIA AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION:

1. At the commencement of this Constitution, every person who has his domicile in the territory of India and—
(a) who was born in the territory of India; or
(b) either of whose parents was born in the territory of India; or
(c) who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not less than five years immediately preceding such commencement, shall be a citizen of India. (Article-5)

2. Persons who migrated to India from Pakistan before 19 July, 1948 and since then have been ordinarily residing in India.

3. Persons who migrate to India from Pakistan on or after 19 July, 1948 but got themselves, duly registered as citizen with a competent officer appointed for that purpose.

4. Persons who migrated to Pakistan after 1st March, 1947 but returned to India under a permit for resettlement.

5. Any person who or either of whose parents or any of whose grandparents was born in India.

The Constitution makes use of the words ‘domicile’ and ‘residence’. The basic idea of domicile is permanent home. Residence in the country and the intention to make it his home are necessary to constitute a domicile.

ACQUISITION OF INDIAN CITIZENSHIP UNDER THE CITIZENSHIP ACT 1955:

The legislation related to this matter is the Citizenship Act 1955. In exercise of its power the Parliament has enacted the Indian Citizenship Act, 1955. This Act provides for the acquisition and loss of Indian citizenship after the commencement of the Constitution. It has been amended by the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1986, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1992, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003, and the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2005.

Acquisition of Indian Citizenship as per Citizenship Act 1955: Indian Citizenship can be acquired under the following ways –
(1) Citizenship by birth
(2) Citizenship by descent
(3) Citizenship by registration
(4) Citizenship by naturalization
(5) Citizenship by incorporation of territory

LOSS OF INDIAN CITIZENSHIP:

As per Citizenship Act 1955 one can lose citizenship of India in three ways – Renunciation, Termination and Deprivation.

1. Renunciation is a voluntary act by which a person after acquiring the citizenship of another country gives up his Indian citizenship.

2. Termination takes place by operation of law. When an India citizen voluntarily acquires the citizenship of another country, he automatically ceases to be an Indian citizen.

3. Deprivation is a compulsory termination of the citizenship of India obtained by Registration or Naturalization. The citizenship is deprived on the basis of an order of the Government of India, in cases involving acquisition of India citizenship by fraud, false representation and concealment of material fact or being disloyal to the Constitution etc.

GA Notes:”Atmospheric Circulation” For Railway & SSC Exams 2018-19

05:40
Atmospheric Circulation
The movement of air in the air is known as atmospheric circulation.

Earth’s atmospheric circulation is an important transfer mechanism for both energy and mass.

The atmospheric circulation, speed and direction of winds are controlled by several forces.

These forces are as follows-

1. Gravitational Force of the Earth

2. The Pressure Gradient Force

3. The Coriolis force

4. The Friction Force
Gravitational Force of the Earth:
The gravitational force of the Earth is equally compressing the atmosphere near the ground world-wide.
Density of air pressure decreases as altitude increases.
The Pressure Gradient Force:
This force drives air from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure that causes wind.
The Coriolis force:
It is a type of deflective force which appears to deflect wind from a straight path in relation to Earth’s rotating surface.
It deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
The Friction Force:
This force drags on the wind as it moves across surfaces.
It decreases with height above the surface.
Its effect extends to a height of about 500m.
Effect of friction force varies with surface texture, wind speed, time of day and year, and atmospheric conditions.

GA Notes:"Some Important Lakes of India" For Railway & SSC Exams

03:23
Some Important Lakes of India
Ashtamudi Lake:

It is a lagoon in the Kollam district of Kerala.
It has been registered as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.

Chilka Lake:
It is a brackish water coastal lake.
It is the largest coastal lagoon in India.
It is situated in the state of Odisha.
Chilika Lake is the largest wintering ground for migratory birds, on the Indian sub-continent.

Kolleru Lake:

It is one of the largest fresh water lake of India.
It is situated in Andhra Pradesh.
Located between the deltas of the Krishna and Godavari rivers.
It was declared a wetland of international importance in 2002 under Ramsar convention.

Loktak Lake:

It is the largest fresh water lake in north-east India.
It is also called the only 'Floating Islands Lake' in the world because of the phumdis floating over it.
It is designated a wetland of international importance under Ramsar Convention in 1990.

Pulicat Lake:

It is the second largest brackish water lake on the Coromandel Coast.
It lies on the border of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
The barrier island of Sriharikota separates the lake from the Bay of Bengal.

Pushkar Lake:

It is situated in the district of Ajmer.
It is an artificial lake.
Thousands of pilgrims come to bath in the waters of the lake during the festival of Kartika Poornima in November.

Sambhar Lake:

It is situated near Jaipur city.
It is the largest inland salt lake of India.

Vembanad Lake:

It is the largest lake in Kerala.
It is separated from the Arabian Sea by a narrow barrier island.
The Nehru Trophy Boat Race is conducted in a portion of the lake.

Wular Lake:

It is situated in the Valley of Kashmir between Sopore and Bandipore.
It is the largest fresh water lake in India.
Jhelum river feeds the lake.

Dal Lake:

Dal Lake is a lake in Srinagar and is integral to tourism known as the "Jewel in the crown of Kashmir" or "Srinagar's Jewel".
Asia's largest Tulip garden is on the banks of Dal Lake.
Mughal gardens, Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh are on the banks of Dal Lake.

Tsomgo Lake:

Tsomgo Lake or Changu Lake, is a glacial lake in the East Sikkim.
The lake is the venue for the Guru Purnima festival in which Jhakris of Sikkim assemble at the lake area to derive benefits from the healing qualities of the lake waters.

Bhimtal Lake:

It is the largest lake in Kumaon region, known as the "lake district of India".
It is a "C" shaped lake.

Periyar Lake:

Periyar Lake is formed by the construction of the dam across the Mullaperiyar River in 1895.
The notable elephant reserve and a tiger reserve, Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary is located on the banks of Periyar Lake.

GA Notes:"PARLIAMENTARY FORUMS" For Railway & SSC Exams

05:11
PARAGRAPHMENTARY FORUMS
The Parliamentary Forums have been constituted with the objective of equipping members with information and knowledge on specific issues of national concern and in assisting them to adopt a result-oriented approach towards related issues. The first Parliamentary Forum on Water Conservation and Management was constituted in the year 2005. Subsequently, seven more Parliamentary forums were constituted.

OBJECTIVES OF THE FORUMS-

To provide a platform to the members for interaction and discussion with the ministers concerned, experts and key officials from the nodal ministries on critical issues with a result-oriented approach for speeding up the implementation process.
To sensitize the members about the key areas of concern.
To prepare a data base on critical issues coming under the ambit of each parliamentary forum so that they can meaningfully participate in the discussions held in the meeting of the forums.

COMPOSITION OF THE FORUMS-

The Speaker of Lok Sabha is the ex-officio President of all the Forums except the Parliamentary Forum on Population and Public Health.
The Chairman of Rajya Sabha is the ex-officio President and the Speaker is the ex-officio Co-President.
The Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha, the Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha, the concerned Ministers and the Chairmen of Departmentally-Related Standing Committees are the ex-officio Vice Presidents of the respective Forums.
Each Forum consists of not more than 31 members (excluding the President, Co-President and Vice-Presidents) out of whom not more than 21 are from the Lok Sabha and not more than 10 are from the Rajya Sabha.
Members of these forums are nominated by the Speaker/Chairman.
The duration of the office of members of the forum is co-terminus with their membership in the respective Houses.
A member may also resign from the forum by writing to the Speaker/Chairman

Note-
The President of the forum appoints a member-convener for each forum to conduct regular, approved programmes/meetings of the forum in consultation with the President.

At present, there are eight Parliamentary forums-

1. Parliamentary Forum on Water Conservation and Management (2005)
2. Parliamentary Forum on Youth (2006)
3. Parliamentary Forum on Children (2006)
4. Parliamentary Forum on Population and Public Health (2006)
5. Parliamentary Forum on Global Warming and Climate Change (2008)
6. Parliamentary Forum on Disaster Management (2011)
7. Parliamentary Forum on Artisans and Crafts-people (2013)
8. Parliamentary Forum on Millennium Development Goals (2013)

GA Notes:"Basic Structure of the Constitution" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018-19

01:30
Basic Structure of the Constitution

The "basic features" principle was first expounded in 1953, by Justice J.R. Mudholkar in his dissent, in the case of Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan.
The basic structure doctrine is an Indian judicial principle that the Constitution of India has certain basic features that cannot be altered or destroyed through amendments by the parliament.
The basic features of the Constitution have not been explicitly defined by the Judiciary, and the claim of any particular feature of the Constitution to be a "basic" feature is determined by the Court in each case that comes before it.
Key among these "basic features", are the fundamental rights granted to individuals by the constitution.
The basic structure doctrine does not apply to ordinary Acts of Parliament, which must itself be in conformity with the Constitution.
The present position is that the Parliament under Article 368 can amend any part of the Constitution including the Fundamental Rights but without affecting the ‘basic structure’ of the Constitution.


From the various judgements, the following have emerged as ‘basic features’ of the Constitution:
1. Supremacy of the Constitution
2. Sovereign, democratic and republican nature of the Indian polity
3. Secular character of the Constitution
4. Separation of powers between the legislature, the executive and the judiciary
5. Federal character of the Constitution
6. Unity and integrity of the nation
7. Welfare state (socio-economic justice)
8. Judicial review
9. Freedom and dignity of the individual
10. Parliamentary system
11. Rule of law
12. Harmony and balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles
13. Principle of equality
14. Free and fair elections
15. Independence of Judiciary
16. Limited power of Parliament to amend the Constitution
17. Effective access to justice
18. Principles (or essence) underlying fundamental rights.
19. Powers of the Supreme Court under Articles 32, 136, 141 and 142
20. Powers of the High Courts under Articles 226 and 227

Landmark cases related to the basic structure of the Constitution:
1. Shankari Prasad Case vs. Union of India, 1951
2. Sajjan Singh vs. State of Rajasthan, 1965
3. Golak Nath vs. the State of Punjab (1967)
4. The Kesavananda case (1973)
5. Indira Gandhi vs. Raj Narain, (1975)
6. Minerva Mill vs. Union of India (1980)
7. Chandra Kumar vs. Union of India (1997)

GA Notes:"Article 20 and 21 in Indian Constitution" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018-19

05:53
Article 20 and 21 in Indian Constitution
In the light of the bitter experience of the June 1975 emergency the Constitution (Forty Fourth Amendment) Act, 1978 was passed. Several salutary changes were made in the emergency provisions, the most significant of which was the amendment made to Article 359 to the effect that fundamental rights guaranteed by Articles 20 and 21 of the Constitution could not be suspended during emergency by a Presidential Order under Article 359. Article 20 provides for protection in respect of retrospective criminal laws, double jeopardy and self-incrimination. Article 21 guarantees that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.
Article 359: Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies

Let us discuss Article 20 and 21 in detail-

Article 20[Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offences]-

The Article 20 is one of the pillars of fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India. It mainly deals with protection of certain rights in case of conviction for offences.
Article 20 grants protection against arbitrary and excessive punishment to an accused person, whether citizen or foreigner or legal person like a company or a corporation.

It contains three provisions in that direction:

(a) No ex-post-facto law:
Article 20 protects individuals against ex post facto legislation. i.e. No person shall be (i) convicted of any offence except for violation of a law in force at the time of the commission of the act, nor (ii) subjected to a penalty greater than that prescribed by the law in force at the time of the commission of the act.

(b)No double jeopardy:
The Constitution of India prohibits double punishment for the same offence. i.e. No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once.

Note-

Although Article 20 disapproves of the doctrine of ‘Double Jeopardy’, it does not give immunity from proceedings before a court of law or tribunal. Hence, a public servant who has been punished for an offence in a court of law may yet be subjected to departmental proceedings for the same offence.
Also, the Article does not prevent subsequent trial and conviction for another offence even if the two offences have some common aspects.

(c) No self-incrimination:
The immunity from self-incrimination is conferred in the Article 20(3) i.e. No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
In short, no individual can be forced to accuse himself.

Note-
The Article 20 (3) can be rightfully used as an anchor only by those accused of an offence and against whom an FIR has been lodged, which in normal course would result in prosecution.

Article 21[Protection of Life and Personal Liberty]-

Article 21 declares that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. This right is available to both citizens and non-citizens.
Article 21 secures two rights:

1)  Right to life
2) Right to personal liberty


The Supreme Court of India in the famous Gopalan Case (1950) held that protection under Article 21 is available only against arbitrary executive action and not against arbitrary legislative action.
It clarified that if personal liberty of an individual is taken away by a law, the validity of the law cannot be questioned.
However, in the Maneka Gandhi Case (1973) the Supreme Court overruled its judgement in the Gopalan Case by widely interpreting Article 21.
It stated that protection under Article 21 should be available not only against arbitrary executive action but also against arbitrary legislative action by introducing the American concept of ‘due process of law’.
It pronounced the expression ‘Personal Liberty’ in Article 21 is of the widest amplitude and it covers a wide range of rights that go to constitute the personal liberties of a man.


The Supreme Court has reaffirmed its judgement in the Menaka case in the subsequent cases. It has declared the following rights as part of Article 21:
(1) Right to live with human dignity.
(2) Right to decent environment including pollution free water and air and protection against hazardous industries.
(3) Right to livelihood.
(4) Right to privacy.
(5) Right to shelter.
(6) Right to health.
(7) Right to free education up to 14 years of age.
(8) Right to free legal aid.
(9) Right against solitary confinement.
(10) Right to speedy trial.
(11) Right against handcuffing.
(12) Right against inhuman treatment.
(13) Right against delayed execution.
(14) Right to travel abroad.
(15) Right against bonded labour.
(16) Right against custodial harassment.
(17) Right to emergency medical aid.
(18) Right to timely medical treatment in government hospital.
(19) Right not to be driven out of a state.
(20) Right to fair trial.
(21) Right of prisoner to have necessities of life.
(22) Right of women to be treated with decency and dignity.
(23) Right against public hanging.
(24) Right to hearing.
(25) Right to information.
(26) Right to reputation.
(27) Right of appeal from a judgement of conviction
(28) Right to social security and protection of the family
(29) Right to social and economic justice and empowerment
(30) Right against bar fetters
(31) Right to appropriate life insurance policy
(32) Right to sleep
(33) Right to freedom from noise pollution
(34) Right to electricity

GA Notes:"Main Passes of Himalayas (Part-III)" For , Exams 2018-19

03:15
Main Passes of Himalayas
Niti Pass:
It is the last village and outpost in Indo-Tibetan border in Chamoli district.
It joins Uttarakhand with Tibet.

Pensi La:

Situated in the Greater Himalayas.
This pass connects the valley of Kashmir with Kargil(Ladakh).

Pir-Panjal Pass:

Situated in the Pir Panjal Range in Jammu and Kashmir.
It is the traditional pass from Jammu to Srinagar.
It is the highest point on the Mughal road.
It is the shortest and easiest metalled road access from Jammu to the Valley of Kashmir.

Qara Tagh Pass:

Situated in the Karakoram Mountains.
It is an offshoot of the Great Silk Road.

Rohtang Pass:

Situated on the eastern Pir Panjal Range of the Himalayas.
It connects the Kullu Valley with the Lahaul and Spiti Valleys of Himachal Pradesh.

Shipik La:

It connects Himachal Pradesh with Tibet.
The road is an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road.
The Satluj river enters India through this pass.
It is the third border post for trade with China after Nathula(Sikkim) and Lipulekh(Uttarakhand).

Thang La:

It is a mountain pass in Ladakh.
It is situated on the National Highway in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
It is the second highest motorble mountain pass in India after Khardung La.

Trail's Pass:

Situated in the Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts of Uttarakhand at the end of the Pindari Glacier.
It connects Pindari Valley to Milan Valley.

Zoji la:

It is a high mountain pass in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.
It is located on National Highway 1 between Srinagar and Leh in the western section of the Himalayan mountain range.
It connects Srinagar with Kargil and Leh.
It separates Kashmir Valley to its west from Dras Valley to its northeast.
Beacon Force of Border Road Organisation(BRO) is responsible for clearing and maintenance of the road during winter season.

Note:
Shencottah-Gap which is located in Western Ghats connects the Madurai city of Tamil Nadu with Kottayam city of Kerala.

GA Notes:"Main Passes of Himalayas (Part-II)" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018-19

03:11
Main Passes of Himalayas
Khardung La:
Situated in the Ladakh region of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.
It is the highest motorable pass in the country.
It joins Leh with Siachin glacier.

Khunjerab Pass:

Situated in the Karakoram Mountains.
It is a traditional pass between Ladakh and the Sinkiang Province of China.

Jelep La:

It is a high mountain pass between East Sikkim District, Sikkim, India and Tibet Autonomous Region, China.
It is on a route that connects Lhasa to India.
This pass connects Sikkim with Lhasa, passes through the Chumbi Valley.

Lanak La:

Situated in the Aksai-Chin(Ladakh).
It connects Ladakh with Lhasa.

Likhapani/Pangsau Pass:

It lies on the crest of the Patkai Hills on the India-Burma (Myanmar) border.
The pass offers one of the easiest routes into Burma from the Assam plains.

Lipu Lekh:

Situated in the Pithoragarh District.
It connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.
The pilgrims for Mansarovar Lake travel through this pass.

Mana Pass:

Situated in the Greater Himalayas.
It connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.

Mangsha Dhura Pass:

Situated in the district of Pithoragarh.
It connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.
The pilgrims for Mansarovar cross this pass.

Mulinga La:

Situated north of Gangotri.
It is a seasonal pass which connects Uttarakhand with Tibet.

Nathu La:

Situated on the Indo-China border.
It forms part of an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road.
Nathu-La is one of the three trading border posts between India and China.
After the 1962 war it was reopened in 2006.

GA Notes:"THE GREAT REVOLT OF 1857" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018

01:04
THE GREAT REVOLT OF 1857
The 1857 Revolt sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism, which lay dormant in the subconscious of the Indian people. The Revolt of 1857 ended an era and sowed the seeds of a new one. The year 1857 is a great divide between the two landmarks in Indian history. One was that of British paramountcy in the first half, and the other is that of the growth of Indian nationalism in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Nature of the Revolt:

Sir John Lawrence was of the opinion that the Revolt was purely a military outbreak, and not a conspiracy to overthrow British rule.
Vir Savarkar has described it as as the First War of Indian Independence.


Causes of the Revolt:

Political Causes-

Anti-British feelings were particularly strong in those regions like Burma, Assam, Coorg, Sind, and the Punjab which were unjustly annexed to the British Empire.
The Doctrine of Lapse, particularly its practical application by Lord Dalhousie, produced grave discontent and alarm among the native princes, who were directly affected.


Economic Causes-

The East India Company funded the growth of British trade and commerce at the cost of Indians.
The British damaged the Indian trade and manufacture by imposing a high tariff in Britain against Indian goods.
It encouraged all means the import of British goods to India.
A new plantation system introduced in the year 1833 resulted in incalculable misery for the Indian peasants.


Social Causes-

Indiscriminate assaults on Indians by Englishmen became quite common.
A general alarm was raised among the Hindus and Muslims by the activities of the Christian missionaries.
The educational institutions established by the missionaries inculcated western education and culture in the place of oriental learning.


Military causes-

The Indian sepoys in the British Indian army nursed a sense of strong resentment at their low salary and poor prospects of promotion.
The Vellore mutiny of 1806, a precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt, was the outcome of such tendencies on the part of the military authorities.


The Beginning of the Revolt:

The events that led to the Revolt began on 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore.
Mangal Pandey (a sepoy) refused to use the greased cartridges and single-handedly attacked and killed his officer.
Mangal Pandey was hanged.
The regiment to which he belonged was disbanded and sepoys guilty of rebellion punished.
At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for refusing to use the greased catridges.
The mutineers proclaimed the aged nominal king, Bahadur Shah II of the Mughal dynasty as the Emperor of India.


Other Leaders of Revolt of 1857 in India:

Nana Sahib-
At Kanpur, the revolt was led by Nana Sahib, the adopted son of exiled Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II.

Rani Lakshmibai-
Rani Lakshmibai (Manikarnika) was married to Raja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar, the Maharaja of Jhansi in 1842, and became the queen of Jhansi. After their marriage, She gave birth to a son Damodar Rao in 1851.

Tatya Tope-
Tatya Tope was Nana Sahib‘s close associate and general. During the Siege of Cawnpore in 1857, Nana Sahib‘s forces attacked the British entrenchment at Kanpur in June 1857.

Veer Kunwar Singh-
Veer Kunwar Singh, the king of Jagdispur, currently a part of Bhojpur district, Bihar, was one of the leaders of the Indian revolt of 1857.

Shah Mal-
Shah Mal lived in a large village in pargana Barout in Uttar Pradesh. He mobilised the headmen and cultivators of chaurasee des, moving at night from village to village, urging people to rebel against the British.

Begum of Oudh-
The principal person responsible for the revolt in Lucknow was the Begum of Oudh.

Note-
Ultimately the 1857 Revolt came to an end with the victory of the British. Viceroy Canning proclaimed peace throughout India.

Causes for the Failure of the Revolt:

The first and foremost cause was that the Revolt failed to embrace the whole of India.
Different sections of society such as moneylenders, merchants and modern educated Indians were actually against the Revolt.
The lack of interest shown by the intellectuals.
The British possessed better equipment.

GA Notes:"Important Facts about HARSHAVARDHANA (606 – 647 A.D.)" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018

06:07
HARSHAVARDHANA
(606 – 647 A.D.)

In the beginning of the seventh century A.D. that Harshvardhana succeeded in establishing a larger kingdom in north India.
The chief sources for tracing the history of Harsha and his times are the Harshacharita written by Banabhatta and the Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang.
The dramas written by Harsha, namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika also provide useful information.
The Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpatc inscription are also helpful to know the chronology of Harsha.
The founder of the family of Harsha was Pushyabhuti.
Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas. They called themselves Vardhanas.
The first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was Prabhakaravardhana. His capital was Thaneswar, north of Delhi.
He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka.
Prabhakaravardhana was succedded by his elder son Rajyavardhana.
After the death of Rajyavardhana, Harsha succeeded his brother at Thaneswar.
He made Kanauj his new capital.
The most important military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II.
The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title Paramesvara. Hiuen Tsang’s accounts also confirm the victory of Pulakesin.
Nepal had accepted Harsha’s overlordship.
Harsha’s last military campaign was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.
In his early life, Harsha was a devout Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist. Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.
Harsha organized a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang towards the close of his reign.
Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the Allahabad Conference held at Allahabad, known as Prayag. It was the one among the conferences routinely convened by Harsha once in five years.
The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.
Banabhatta was the Asthana Kavi in the court of King Harsha Vardhana. Besides Harshacharita, he wrote Kadambari.
Nalanda University - the term Nalanda means “giver of knowledge”. It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta period.
Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and he became the head of the Nalanda University.
Nalanda University was a residential university and education was free including the boarding and lodging.
Admission was made by means of an entrance examination. The entrance test was so difficult that not more than thirty percent of the candidates were successful.

GA Notes:"SOCIAL REFORMERS AND SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS (PART-II)" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018

05:31
SOCIAL REFORMERS AND SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
Muslim Reform Movements:

The Muslim reform movements started a little later because they had avoided western education in the beginning.
The first effort was in 1863 when the Muhammad Literary Society was set up in Calcutta. Its aim was to popularise the study of English and western sciences.

Aligarh Movement:

The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) for the social and educational advancement of the Muslims in India.
In 1866, he started the Mohammadan Educational Conference as a general forum for spreading liberal ideas among the Muslims.
In 1875, he founded a modern school at Aligarh to promote English education among the Muslims, later grown into the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental College and then into the Aligarh Muslim University.

Ahmadiya Movement:

The Ahmadiya movement was launched by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadiyan (1839-1908) in 1889.
Objective of this movement is to spread western education among Indian Muslims.
The Ahmadiya movement based itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of a universal religion of all humanity.

Deoband Movement:

The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband Moovement.
It's objectives were:
(i) to propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koran and the Hadis and
(ii) to keep alive the spirit of jihad aganist the foreign rulers.
The new Deoband leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and intellectual content to the religious ideas of the school.

Self-Respect Movement and Periyar E.V.R.:

Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy commonly known as Periyar, also referred to as Thanthai Periyar, was an Indian social activist, and politician who started the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam.
E.V.R. opposed the Varnashrama policy followed in the V.V.S. Iyer’s  Seranmadevi  Gurugulam.
During 1920-1925 being in the Congrees Party he stressed that Congress should accept communal representation.
In 1925, he started the “Self-Respect Movement”.
The aims of the ‘Self -Respect Movement’ were to uplift the Dravidians and to expose the Brahmanical tyranny and deceptive methods by which they controlled all spheres of Hindu life.

Sikh Reform Movement:

Baba Dayal Das founded the Nirankari Movement. He insisted the worship of God as nirankar (formless).
The Namdhari Movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh. His followers wore white clothes and gave up meat eating.
They helped to set up the Khalsa College at Amritsar in 1892.They also encouraged Gurmukhi and Punjabi literature.
In 1920, the Akalis started a movement to remove the corrupt Mahants (priests) from the Sikh gurudwaras.Later, the Akalis organised themselves into a political party.

Parsi Reform Movement:

The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S. Bengalee in 1851.
They advocated the spread of women’s education.
Naoroji published a monthly journal 'Jagat Mithra'.

GA Notes: 10 December |Human Rights Day

04:49
10 December |Human Rights Day
#StandUp4HumanRights
Human Rights Day is observed every year on 10 December – the day the United Nations General Assembly adopted, in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Human Rights Day was officially established in the meeting of United Nations General Assembly on 4th of December in 1950. This year, Human Rights Day marks the 70th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. #StandUp4HumanRights is the global campaign launched on for year 2018.


It establishes the equal dignity and worth of every person. Human rights are at the heart of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as in the absence of human dignity we cannot drive sustainable development. UNESCO was the first United Nations agency to place the Universal Declaration at the top of all its action and to promote it across the world through education and the media.

It is a milestone document that proclaimed the inalienable rights which everyone is inherently entitled to as a human being - regardless of race, colour, religion, sex, language, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. It is the most translated document in the world, available in more than 500 languages.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights empowers us all. The principles enshrined in the Declaration are as relevant today as they were in 1948. We need to stand up for our own rights and those of others. We can take action in our own daily lives, to uphold the rights that protect us all and thereby promote the kinship of all human beings.

About National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India:
The NHRC is an embodiment of India’s concern for the promotion and protection of human rights.
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India is an autonomous statutory body established on 12 October, 1993.
The statute under which it is established is the Protection of Human Rights Act (PHRA), 1993 as amended by the Protection of Human Rights (Amendment) Act, 2006.
The Commission is composed of a chairperson and six members. (The chairperson has to have been a chief justice of the Supreme Court)
The NHRC is the National Human Rights Commission of India, responsible for the protection and promotion of human rights, defined by the Act as "rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants".

GA Notes : National Commission on Backward Classes (NCBC)

04:43
To let you make the most of GA section, we are providing important facts related to GA. Also, General Awareness is a major part to be asked for various posts exams. We have covered important notes focusing on these prestigious exams. We wish you all the best of luck to come over the fear of General Awareness section
National Commission on Backward Classes (NCBC)
पिछड़े वर्गों के लिए राष्ट्रीय आयोग (एनसीबीसी)
(123rd Amendment)
(123वां संशोधन)
The 123rd Amendement:
123वां संशोधन:

-The Constitution (123rd Amendment) Bill, 2017 was introduced in Lok Sabha by the Minister of Social Justice and Empowerment, Mr. Thaawarchand Gehlot on April 5, 2017.
संविधान संशोधन (123 वां संशोधन) विधेयक, 2017 को लोकसभा में सामाजिक न्याय और सशक्तिकरण मंत्री श्री थवावरंद गेहलोत ने 5 अप्रैल, 2017 को पेश किया था।

- The Bill seeks to establish the NCBC under the Constitution and provide it the authority to examine complaints and welfare measures regarding socially and educationally backward classes.
इस विधेयक का उद्देश्य संविधान के तहत एनसीबीसी का गठन करना है और इसे सामाजिक और शैक्षिक रूप से पिछड़े वर्ग के सन्दर्भ में शिकायतों और कल्याण कार्यों की जांच करने का अधिकार प्रदान करना है।

-The Bill seeks to remove the power of the NCSC to examine matters related to backward classes.
विधेयक का उद्देश्य पिछड़े वर्गों से संबंधित मामलों की जांच के लिए एनसीएससी की शक्ति को समाप्त करना है।

Note:
नोट:
Currently, under the Constitution the NCSC has the power to look into complaints and welfare measures with regard to Scheduled Castes, backward classes and Anglo-Indians.
वर्तमान में, संविधान के तहत अनुसूचित जातियों, पिछड़े वर्गों और एंग्लो-इंडियंस के सन्दर्भ में शिकायतों और कल्याण उपायों की देखरेख की शक्ति एनसीएससी के पास है।


President's Role:
राष्ट्रपति की भूमिका:

-The Constitution Amendment Bill states that the President may specify the socially and educationally backward classes in the various states and union territories.
संविधान संशोधन विधेयक के अनुसार राष्ट्रपति विभिन्न राज्यों और केंद्र शासित प्रदेशों में सामाजिक और शैक्षिक रूप से पिछड़े वर्गों को निर्दिष्ट कर सकते हैं।

-He may do this in consultation with the Governor of the concerned state.  However, a law of Parliament will be required if the list of backward classes is to be amended.
वह संबंधित राज्य के राज्यपाल के परामर्श से ऐसा कर सकता है। हालांकि, यदि पिछड़े वर्गों की सूची में संशोधन किया जाना है, तो संसद का कानून आवश्यक होगा।


National Commission for Backward Classes(NCBC):
पिछड़े वर्गों के लिए राष्ट्रीय आयोग (एनसीबीसी):

-The NCBC is a body set up under the National Commission for Backward Classes Act, 1993.
एनसीबीसी, पिछड़ा वर्ग अधिनियम, 1993 के लिए राष्ट्रीय आयोग के तहत स्थापित एक निकाय है।

-It has the power to examine complaints regarding inclusion or exclusion of groups within the list of backward classes and advise the central government in this regard.
इसके पास पिछड़े वर्गों की सूची में समूहों को शामिल करने या बहिष्कार करने के संबंध में शिकायतों की जांच करने तथा इस संबंध में केंद्र सरकार को सलाह देने की शक्ति है।

-Under the Constitution Amendment Bill, the NCBC will comprise of five members appointed by the President.
संविधान संशोधन विधेयक के तहत, एनसीबीसी में राष्ट्रपति द्वारा नियुक्त पांच सदस्य शामिल होंगे।

-Their tenure and conditions of service will also be decided by the President through rules.
उनका कार्यकाल और सेवा शर्तों का निर्धारण भी नियमों के माध्यम से राष्ट्रपति द्वारा किया जाएगा।


Functions Of NCBC:
एनसीबीसी के कार्य:

-Investigating and monitoring how safeguards provided to the backward classes under the Constitution and other laws are being implemented
संविधान के तहत पिछड़े वर्गों को प्रदान किए गए सुरक्षा उपायों की जांच और निगरानी तथा अन्य कानून लागू करना

-Inquiring into specific complaints regarding violation of rights
अधिकारों के उल्लंघन के संबंध में विशिष्ट शिकायतों की जांच

-Advising and making recommendations on socio-economic development of such classes
ऐसे वर्गों के सामाजिक-आर्थिक विकास पर सलाह और संस्तुति देना

-The central and state governments will be required to consult with the NCBC on all major policy matters affecting the socially and educationally backward classes.
केंद्रीय और राज्य सरकार को सामाजिक और शैक्षिक रूप से पिछड़े वर्गों को प्रभावित करने वाले सभी प्रमुख नीतिगत मामलों पर एनसीबीसी से परामर्श करने की आवश्यकता होगी।

-The NCBC will be required to present annual reports to the President on working of the safeguards for backward classes.
एनसीबीसी को पिछड़े वर्गों के लिए सुरक्षा उपायों के काम पर राष्ट्रपति को वार्षिक रिपोर्ट पेश करनी होगी।

-These reports will be tabled in Parliament and in the state legislative assemblies of the concerned states.
ये रिपोर्ट संसद में और संबंधित राज्यों की राज्य विधानसभाओं में पेश की जाएगी।

-Under the Constitution Amendment Bill, the NCBC will have the powers of a civil court while investigating or inquiring into any complaints.
संविधान संशोधन विधेयक के तहत, किसी भी शिकायत की जांच या पूछताछ के दौरान एनसीबीसी के पास सिविल कोर्ट की शक्तियां होंगी।

-These powers include:
इन शक्तियों में शामिल है:
(i) summoning people and examining them on oath
लोगों को समन जारी करना और शपथ पर उनकी जांच करना

(ii) requiring production of any document or public record
किसी दस्तावेज़ या सार्वजनिक रिकॉर्ड की माँग करना

(iii) receiving evidence.
साक्ष्य प्राप्त करना।

GA Notes: "The Vedic Period" For Railway & SSC Exams 2018

03:12
The Vedic period
The speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.

Their initial settlements were in the valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they moved into Indo-Gangetic plains.

By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was referred to as Aryavarta.

This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C may be divided into-
-The Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C)
-The Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C).

Different scholars have identified different regions as the original home of the Aryans, includes the Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia.

The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.

-The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns.

-The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice

-The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it.

-The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.

Besides the Vedas,there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

-The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony.

-The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature.

-The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices.

-The author of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.

HISTORY NOTES: Raja Ram Mohan Roy for SSC CGL EXAM

03:53
Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Known as the father of Indian renaissance & the first great leader of modern India.
Influenced by European enlightenment he stressed on reason & human dignity.
He respects the traditional philosophical system of East but believes that only modern culture would help India to revive.
Gifted linguist, he knew many languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, English, Arabic, French, Latin, Hebrew etc.

Religious & Philosophical Quest
Ram Mohan Roy wrote a Persian book “Tuhafat-ul-muwahhidin” (Gift to monotheist) in 1809, in which he strongly supported believe in one God (Monotheism).
He translated the Vedas & Five Upanishads  into Bengali
He set up Atmiya sabha in 1814, Calcutta.
He strongly opposed idol worship, the rigidity of caste & superstitious rituals.
He has written, Precepts of Jesus (1820) – He emphasize the moral message of Christ & criticized miracle stories in Bible.
He described blind imitation of  west, but wanted synthesis of best east & west.
In 1828, he founded Brahma Sabha later Brahma Samaj (1830) to purify Hinduism & to preach monotheism.
It was based on – Reason, Vedas & Upanishads, monotheism.
Brahma samaj opposed – caste system, child marriage, sati system, etc.
Work For Women
Sati-system was Abolished by William Bentinck in 1829.
He also demanded the right of inheritance & Property for Women.
Modern education
He supported dutch watch , watch maker ‘David Hare’ to found Hindu-College 1817.
He established a vedant college in Calcutta 1825.
He strongly supported introduction of English education
National Consciousness
He was the pioneer of Indian Journalism & brought Journals in Bengali, Persian, Hindi, English for spreading scientific literacy & political education.
He started Bengali weekly “Sambad Kaumudi” (1821) which was first Indian newspaper edited, published & managed by Indians.[Language – Bangali]
He also started Persian Weekly – “Mirat-ul-Akhbar” [Language – Farsi]
Pioneer in Political Agitation:-
He protested against restrictions on Indian Press in 1824.
He demanded the abolition of trading rights of east India Company & removal of heavy export duties on Indian goods.
He also demanded Indianisation of superior services, Judicial equality between Indians & Europeans.
Internationalist
He was given the title of ‘Raja’ by Mughal emperor Akbar-II & sent to England to plead his case for an increase in pension.
He died at Bristol in England in 1833.
Development of Brahma Samaj
Brahma Sabha, established 1828.
Tarachandra Chakraborty was the first secretary of Brahma Sabha.
1830:- Ram Mohan Went to England.
1830-1833:- Acharya Ramchandra, 1833- Death(acting head)[Death of Raja Ram – 1833-Bristal]
1833-43:- Dwarika Nath Tagore
1843:- Devendra Nath Tagore (Father of Rabindranath Tagore)
Founded ‘Tatvabodhini Sabha in 1839.
Published ‘Tatvabodhini’ magazine.
Other members of Tatvabodhini – Rajendra lal Mishra, Akshya Kumar Dutt Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar.
In 1843 – Devendra Nath Tagore re-organised & revitalized Brahmo Samaj
1857:- Keshub Chandra sen joined Brahma samaj & soon popularized it outside Bengal.
1866:- 1st Split in Brahma Samaj
Devendra Nath Tagore → Adi Brahma Samaj
Keshab Chandra Sen → Brahma Samaj of India → He took important Parting getting the Brahma marriage Act 1872. [Girl’s minimum age – 15 years]
1878 – 2nd split  → When Keshavchandra got his minor daughter married to maharaja of coach Bihar.
Sadharan Brahma Samaj → Shivnath Shastri, Anand Mohan Bose
Brahma Samaj was first missionary moment in India & Keshav Chandra sen was first missionary.

GA Notes: Climate of India and Factors Affecting the Climate of India

04:08
Climate of India and Factors Affecting the Climate of India
    भारत की जलवायु और भारत की जलवायु को प्रभावित करने वाले कारक 
Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any given period of time. Weather can change throughout the day whereas the climate of a country is the same for many years.The climate of a country depends upon several factors such as location, size, altitude, wind, distance from the sea, the alignment of hills and mountains etc.
मौसम किसी भी समय किसी भी क्षेत्र में वायुमंडल की स्थिति को संदर्भित करता है. मौसम पूरे दिन में बदल सकता है जबकि देश का वातावरण कई सालों तक समान होता है. देश का वातावरण स्थान, आकार, ऊंचाई, हवा, समुद्र से दूरी, पहाड़ियों और पहाड़ों आदि के संरेखण जैसे कई कारकों पर निर्भर करता है.


The Climate of India: / भारत का जलवायु:
The whole of India has a tropical monsoonal climate, since the greater part of the country lies within the trophies, and the climate is influenced by the monsoons.The position of the mountain ranges and direction of the rain-bearing winds are the two main factors that determine the climate of India. Alternating seasons is the chief characteristic of India's Climate.
सम्पूर्ण भारत की उष्णकटिबंधीय मानसून जलवायु है, क्योंकि देश का बड़ा हिस्सा उष्णकटिबंधीय क्षेत्र के भीतर आता है, और जलवायु मानसून द्वारा प्रभावित होती है. पर्वत की स्थिति और बारिश वाली हवाओं की दिशा दो मुख्य कारक हैं जो भारत के जलवायु का निर्धारण करता है. क्रमिक मौसम भारत के जलवायु की मुख्य विशेषता है.

Factors Affecting the Climate of India/ भारत की जलवायु को प्रभावित करने वाले कारक

Location and Latitudinal Extent: / स्थान और अक्षांश विस्तार:
-The mainland of India extends roughly from 8°N to 37°N and the Tropic of Cancer of passes through the middle of the country.
- भारत की  भूमि लगभग 8°N से 37°N  तक फैली हुई है और देश के मध्य से कर्क रेखा गुजरती है.
-Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer are closer to the equator and experience high temperature throughout the year,the northern parts on the other hand lie in the warm temperature zone.
- कर्क रेखा के दक्षिण की ओर स्थित क्षेत्र भूमध्य रेखा के करीब होने का कारण अधिक पूरे वर्ष उच्च तापमान का अनुभव करते हैं, दूसरी ओर उत्तरी हिस्सों में स्थित क्षेत्र में गर्म तापमान रहता हैं.
-Water bodies comprising the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal surround the peninsular India and make climatic conditions mild along the coastal areas.
- अरब सागर और बंगाल की खाड़ी वाले जल निकायों ने प्रायद्वीपीय भारत को घेर कर और तटीय क्षेत्रों के साथ जलवायु स्थितियों को सामान्य बना देते है.

Distance from the Sea:/ सागर से दूरी:
-With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate. Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such areas have extremes of climate.
- एक लंबी तटरेखा के साथ, बड़े तटीय क्षेत्रों में एक समान जलवायु है. भारत के आतंरिक क्षेत्र समुद्र के मध्यम प्रभाव से बहुत दूर हैं. इस तरह के क्षेत्रों में जलवायु की अवस्थाएं चरम पर हैं.
-For example the annual range of temperature at Kochi does not exceed 3°C whereas it is as high at 20°C at Delhi. Similarly, the amount of annual rainfall at Kolkata is 119 cm which falls to a low of 24 cm at Bikaner.
उदाहरण के लिए कोच्चि में तापमान की वार्षिक सीमा 3 डिग्री सेल्सियस से अधिक नहीं है जबकि यह दिल्ली में 20 डिग्री सेल्सियस से अधिक है. इसी तरह, कोलकाता में वार्षिक वर्षा की मात्रा 119 सेमी है जो बीकानेर में 24 सेमी से कम हो जाती है.

Himalaya Mountains:/ हिमालय पर्वत:
-The Himalayas play an important role in lending a sub-tropical touch to the climate of India.
- हिमालय भारत के उप-उष्णकटिबंधीय जलवायु के लिए एक महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाते हैं.
-It prevents the cold winds of north Asia from blowing into India, thus protecting it from severely cold winters. It also traps the Monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture within the sub-continent.
- यह उत्तरी एशिया की ठंडी हवाओं को भारत में आने से रोकता है, इस प्रकार यह अत्यधिक शीत  ऋतु की ठंड से बचाता है. यह मानसून की हवाओं को भी रोकता है,  जिससे उपमहाद्वीप में वर्ष करके उनकी नमी को कम करने के लिए बाधित करता है.

Altitude: ऊंचाई:
-Temperature decreases with height.
ऊंचाई के साथ तापमान कम हो जाता है.
-Several hill stations and the Himalayan ranges are much cooler than the places located in the Great Plain of North India.
- उत्तर भारत के बड़े मैदान में स्थित स्थानों की तुलना में कई हिल स्टेशन और हिमालय पर्वत की सीमा बहुत ठंडी हैं.
-Places located at higher altitude have cool climate even though they are located in the peninsular India, i.e., Ooty.
- ऊंचाई पर स्थित जगहों में ठंडे वातावरण होते हैं, भले ही वे प्रायद्वीपीय भारत में स्थित क्यों ना हो,  जैसे: ऊटी.

Upper Air Circulation:/ ऊपरी वायु परिसंचरण:
-The changes in the upper air circulation over Indian landmass influence the climate of India to a great extent.
- भारतीय क्षेत्र के ऊपरी वायु परिसंचरण में परिवर्तन भारत के जलवायु को काफी हद तक प्रभावित करते हैं.
-Air currents in the upper layers of the atmosphere known as jet steams could determine the arrival of the monsoons and departure of the monsoons.
वायुमंडल के ऊपरी परतों में स्थित वायु धाराओं को जिनको जेट स्ट्रीम के रूप में जाना जाता है वह मानसून के प्रस्थान और मानसून के निर्धारक के रूप में भी जाना जाता है.

Tropical Cyclones: / ऊष्णकटिबंधी चक्रवात:
-Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea and the influence large parts of the peninsular India. Majority of the cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and influence the weather conditions during the south-west monsoon season.
- उष्णकटिबंधीय चक्रवात बंगाल की खाड़ी और अरब सागर में उत्पन्न होते हैं और प्रायद्वीपीय भारत के बड़े हिस्से को प्रभावित करते हैं. अधिकांश चक्रवात बंगाल की खाड़ी में उत्पन्न होते हैं और दक्षिण-पश्चिम मानसून के मौसम के दौरान मौसम की स्थिति को प्रभावित करते हैं.

Western Disturbances: पश्चिमी विक्षोभ :
-The western disturbances originate over the Mediterranean sea and travel eastward under the influence of westerly jet stream. They influence the winter weather conditions over most of Northern plains and Western Himalayan region.
- पश्चिमी विक्षोभ भूमध्य सागर से निकलती है और पश्चिमी जेट धारा के प्रभाव में पूर्व की ओर यात्रा करती है. वे उत्तरी मैदानों और पश्चिमी हिमालयी क्षेत्र में सर्दियों के मौसम की स्थिति को प्रभावित करते हैं.

El-Nino Effect:/ अल-नीनो के प्रभाव:
-El-Nino is a narrow warm current which occasionally appears off the coast of Peru in December.
-अल-नीनो एक संकीर्ण गर्म प्रवाह है जो कभी-कभी दिसंबर में पेरू के तट पर उत्पन्न होती है.
-Sometimes it becomes more intense and increases the surface water temperatures of the sea by 10°C.
कभी-कभी यह अधिक तीव्र हो जाता है और समुद्र के सतह के पानी के तापमान को 10 डिग्री सेल्सियस तक बढ़ा देता है.
-This warming of tropical Pacific waters affects the monsoon winds in the Indian Ocean.
उष्णकटिबंधीय प्रशांत जल की गर्म होने की प्रक्रिया के कारण हिंद महासागर में मानसून की हवाओं को प्रभावित होती है.

La Nina:/ ला नीना:
-La Nina in effect is the complete opposition of El Nino.
-ला नीना, अल-नीनो की ठीक विपरीत परिस्थिति है.
-In India the presence of La Nina portends exceptionally good news, it is the harbinger of heavy monsoon showers in India.
भारत में ला नीना की उपस्थिति असाधारण रूप से सकारात्मक प्रभाव रखती है, यह भारत में भारी मानसून बारिश का केंद्र है.

Southern Oscillation:/ दक्षिणी दोलन :
-The inter­relation of high and low pressure over the Pacific and the Indian Ocean is called Southern Oscillation.
- प्रशांत और हिंद महासागर पर उच्च और निम्न दबाव के पारस्परिक संबंध को दक्षिणी दोलन कहा जाता है.
-When the winter pressure is high over the Pacific Ocean and low over the Indian Ocean, the south-west monsoons in India tend to be stronger. In the reverse case, the monsoons are most likely to be weaker.
- जब प्रशांत महासागर पर सर्दियों का दबाव अधिक होता है और हिंद महासागर से कम होता है, तो भारत में दक्षिण-पश्चिम मानसून मजबूत होते हैं. विपरीत रूप में, मानसून कमजोर होने की संभावना होती है.

Monetary Policy Notes for SSC Exams

05:10
Monetary policy

Monetary policy refers to the policy of the central bank with regard to the use of monetary instruments under its control to achieve the goals specified in the Act. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is vested with the responsibility of conducting monetary policy. This responsibility is explicitly mandated under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.

The goal(s) of monetary policy:

The primary objective of monetary policy is to maintain price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth. Price stability is a necessary precondition to sustainable growth. In May 2016, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Act, 1934 was amended to provide a statutory basis for the implementation of the flexible inflation targeting framework. The amended RBI Act also provides for the inflation target to be set by the Government of India, in consultation with the Reserve Bank, once in every five years. Accordingly, the Central Government has notified in the Official Gazette 4 percent Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation as the target for the period from August 5, 2016, to March 31, 2021, with the upper tolerance limit of 6 per cent and the lower tolerance limit of 2 per cent.
The Central Government notified the following as factors that constitute the failure to achieve the inflation target:
(a) The average inflation is more than the upper tolerance level of the inflation target for any three consecutive quarters; or
(b) The average inflation is less than the lower tolerance level for any three consecutive quarters.
Prior to the amendment in the RBI Act in May 2016, the flexible inflation targeting framework was governed by an Agreement on Monetary Policy Framework between the Government and the Reserve Bank of India of February 20, 2015.


Instruments of Monetary Policy

There are several direct and indirect instruments that are used for implementing monetary policy.

Repo Rate: The (fixed) interest rate at which the Reserve Bank provides the short-term loan (overnight liquidity) to banks against the collateral of government and other approved securities under the liquidity adjustment facility (LAF).

Reverse Repo Rate: The (fixed) interest rate – currently 50 bps below the repo rate – at which the Reserve Bank absorbs liquidity, on an overnight basis, from banks against the collateral of eligible government securities under the LAF.
The LAF consists of overnight as well as term repo auctions. Progressively, the Reserve Bank has increased the proportion of liquidity injected under fine-tuning variable rate repo auctions of tenors ranging between overnight and 56 days. The aim of term repo is to help develop the inter-bank term money market, which in turn can set market-based benchmarks for pricing of loans and deposits, and hence improve transmission of monetary policy. The Reserve Bank also conducts variable interest rate reverse repo auctions, as necessitated by the market conditions.

Marginal Standing Facility (MSF): A facility under which scheduled commercial banks can borrow additional amount of overnight money from the Reserve Bank by dipping into their Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) portfolio up to a limit [currently two per cent of their net demand and time liabilities deposits (NDTL)] at a penal rate of interest, currently 50 basis points above the repo rate. This provides a safety valve against unanticipated liquidity shocks to the banking system.
The MSF rate and reverse repo rate determine the corridor for the daily movement in the weighted average call money rate.

Bank Rate: It is the rate at which the Reserve Bank is ready to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial papers. The Bank Rate is published under Section 49 of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. This rate has been aligned to the MSF rate and, therefore, changes automatically as and when the MSF rate changes alongside policy repo rate changes.

Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): The average daily balance that a bank shall maintain with the Reserve Bank as a share of such per cent of its NDTL that the Reserve Bank may notify from time to time in the Gazette of India.

Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR): The share of NDTL that banks shall maintain in safe and liquid assets, such as unencumbered government securities, cash, and gold. Changes in SLR often influence the availability of resources in the banking system for lending to the private sector.

Open Market Operations (OMOs): These include both outright purchase and sale of government securities for injection and absorption of durable liquidity, respectively.

Market Stabilisation Scheme (MSS): This instrument for monetary management was introduced in 2004. Surplus liquidity of a more enduring nature arising from large capital inflows is absorbed through the sale of short-dated government securities and treasury bills. The cash so mobilized is held in a separate government account with the Reserve Bank.

GA Notes: Concept of Temperature in Atmosphere

05:13
Concept of Temperature in Atmosphere
•It is the measurement of available heat energy in a system.
•The atmosphere is not heated directly by insolation or the Sun's rays; rather it is heated from below by the warmed surface of the earth, i.e. from terrestrial radiation.
•The lower levels of the atmosphere are heated by conduction.
•The earth's surface is heated during day time after receiving solar radiation.
•The upper levels of the earth get heated by convection.
•The air coming in contact with the warmer surface of the earth gets heated and expands in volume.
•The warmer air rose up and forms vertical circulation of air.
•This mechanism transports heat from the ground surface to the atmosphere, thus helps in heating up of the atmosphere.
Determinants of Temperature:
•The average temperature of the earth is about 15'C.
•The spatial distribution of temperature is determined by the following factors-
Latitude:
•In general, average temperature decreases form the equator towards the poles because the sun rays become more and more oblique poleward.
•Consequently, the lower latitudes record high temperature as compared to the higher latitudes.
Altitude:
•The temperature decreases with increasing height from the earth's surface at an average rate of 6.5 °C per 1000 m.
•The lower layer of air contains more vapour hence it absorbs more heat radiated from the earth's surface than the upper air layers.
Cloud Cover:
•There is a direct effect of cloud cover on the amount of insolation.
•Clouds have the effect of reducing the amount both of insolation, which reaches the surface of the earth and of outgoing radiation from the earth's surface.
•As a result, tropical rain forests with dense cloud cover have very little range of temperature, where as, the hot deserts, which havecomparatively less cloud cover, have both high diurnal and annual temperature ranges.
Distance from the Sea/Ocean:
•The location of a place in relation to sea and or oceans also affects the distribution of temperature.
•In general, the sea has a moderating effect on the temperatures of the coastal areas throughout the year.
•On the other hand, regions deep within the interior of land masses experience extreme temperatures. This phenomenon is known as continentality.
Winds:
•The winds help in the redistribution of temperature and in carrying moderating effects of the oceans to the adjacent coastal areas.
•For example, the wind blowing from low latitudes to high latitudes raise the temperature of the region, while winds blowing from high latitudes to low latitudes lower the temperature.
Topography and slope:
•The ground slope facing the Sun receives more insolation(temperature) than the leeward slopes.
•For example, the sothern slopes of Himalayas record more temperature than that of the northern slopes.
Ocean Currents:
•The ocean currents also affect the distribution of temperature on the land and oceans.
•The warm ocean currents flowing from the lower latitudes to the higher latitudes carry warm water towards the polar areas,while the cold water currents bring the cold water towards the equatorial regions.
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