Study Notes on Constitutional body (Part-IV)

CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES IN INDIA

Constitutional bodies in India are the bodies or institutes that have its name mentioned in Indian constitution. It derives power directly from the constitution. Any type of change in mechanism of these bodies needs constitutional amendment.

Constitutional bodies in India are as follows-

Election Commission (Article 324)
Union Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)
State Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)
Finance Commission (Article-280)
National Commission for SCs (Article-338)
National Commission for STs (Article-338 A)
Comptroller and Auditor General of India (Article-148)
Attorney General of India (Article-76)
Advocate General of the State (Article-165)
Special officer for linguistic Minorities (Article-350 B)

Comptroller and Auditor General of India-

–Article 148 of Indian constitution provides for an independent office of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG).
-The CAG is the head of the Indian Audit and Accounts Department.
-Popularly known as the guardian of the public purse he controls the entire financial system of the country at both the levels—the Centre and the state.
-The CAG is appointed by the president of India by a warrant under his hand and seal.
-He holds office for a period of six years or upto the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
-He can be removed by the president on same grounds and in the same manner as a judge of the Supreme Court.
-His salary and other service conditions are determined by the Parliament.(equal to that of a judge of the Supreme Court)
-The Parliament enacted the CAG’s (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) act, 1971.
-The role of CAG is to uphold the Constitution of India and the laws of Parliament in the field of financial administration.
-The accountability of the executive (i.e., council of ministers) to the Parliament in the sphere of financial administration is secured through audit reports of the CAG.
-The CAG is an agent of the Parliament and conducts audit of expenditure on behalf of the Parliament. Therefore, he is responsible only to the Parliament.

Attorney General of India-

–Article 76 of Indian Constitution has provided for the office of the Attorney General for India.
-He is the highest law officer in the country.
-He is appointed by the president.
-He must be a citizen of India and he must have been a judge of some high court for five years or an advocate of some high court for ten years or an eminent jurist, in the opinion of the president.
-The term of office of the AG is not fixed by the Constitution.
-The Constitution does not contain the procedure and grounds for his removal.
–The Functions of AG is as follows-
1. To give advice to the Government of India upon such legal matters, which are referred to him by the president.
2. To perform such other duties of a legal character that are assigned to him by the president.
3. To discharge the functions conferred on him by the Constitution or any other law.
-The Attorney General has the right of audience in all courts in the territory of India.
-He has the right to speak and to take part in the proceedings of both the Houses of Parliament or their joint sitting and any committee of the Parliament of which he may be named a member, but without a right to vote.
-He enjoys all the privileges and immunities that are available to a member of Parliament.
-They are the solicitor general of India and additional solicitor general of India to assist the AG in the fulfilment of his official responsibilities.

Note:
Article 76 does not mention about the solicitor general and additional solicitor general.

Advocate General of the State-

–Article 165 of Indian Constitution has provided for the office of the advocate general for the states.
-He is the highest law officer in the state.
-The advocate general is appointed by the governor.
-He must be a citizen of India and must have held a judicial office for ten years or been an advocate of a high court for ten years.
-He holds office during the pleasure of the governor.
-The Functions of advocate general is as follows-
1. To give advice to the government of the state upon such legal matters which are referred to him by the governor.
2. To perform such other duties of a legal character that are assigned to him by the governor.
3. To discharge the functions conferred on him by the Constitution or any other law.
-The advocate general is entitled to appear before any court of law within the state.
-He has the right to speak and to take part in the proceedings of both the Houses of the state legislature or any committee of the state legislature of which he may be named a member, but without a right to vote.
–He enjoys all the privileges and immunities that are available to a member of the state legislature.

Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities-

–The States Reorganisation Commission (1953-55) made a recommendation in respect to the Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities.
–The Seventh Constitutional Amendment Act of 1956 inserted a new Article 350-B in Part XVII of the Constitution.
-He is to be appointed by the President of India.
-The office of the Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities was created in 1957.
-He is designated as the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities.
-The Commissioner has his headquarters at Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh).
–There are three regional offices at Belgaum (Karnataka), Chennai (Tamil Nadu) and Kolkata (West Bengal). Each is headed by an Assistant Commissioner.
-At the Central level, the Commissioner falls under the Ministry of Minority Affairs.
-Main function of the commissioner is to investigate all matters related to safeguards provided to the linguistic minorities.
-The Commissioner submits the annual reports or other reports to the President through the Union Minority Affairs Minister.

Note:
The Constitution does not specify the qualifications, tenure, salaries and allowances, service conditions and procedure for removal of the Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities.

Study Notes on Constitutional body (Part-III)

CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES IN INDIA

Constitutional bodies in India are the bodies or institutes that have its name mentioned in Indian constitution. It derives power directly from the constitution. Any type of change in mechanism of these bodies needs constitutional amendment.

Constitutional bodies in India are as follows-

Election Commission (Article 324)
Union Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)
State Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)
Finance Commission (Article-280)
National Commission for SCs (Article-338)
National Commission for STs (Article-338 A)
Comptroller and Auditor General of India (Article-148)
Attorney General of India (Article-76)
Advocate General of the State (Article-165)
Special officer for linguistic Minorities (Article-350 B)

National Commission for SCs-

-The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SCs) is directly established by Article 338 of the Constitution.
-Article 338 of the Constitution provided for the appointment of a Special Officer for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to investigate all matters relating to the constitutional safeguards for the SCs and STs and to report to the President on their working.
-He was designated as the Commissioner for SCs and STs.
–In 1978, the Government (through a Resolution) set up a non-statutory multi-member Commission for SCs and STs.
–In 1987, the Government (through another Resolution) modified the functions of the Commission and renamed it as the National Commission for SCs and STs.
–The 65th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1990 provided for the establishment of a high-level multi-member National Commission for SCs and STs in the place of a single Special Officer for SCs and STs.
–The 89th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2003 bifurcated the combined National Commission for SCs and STs into two separate bodies as follows-
National Commission for Scheduled Castes (under Article 338)
National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (under Article 338-A)
-The separate National Commission for SCs came into existence in 2004.
-It consists of a chairperson, a vice-chairperson and three other members.
-They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.
-Their conditions of service and tenure of office are determined by the President.
-The commission presents an annual report to the president. (It can also submit a report as and when it thinks necessary.)
-The Commission is vested with the power to regulate its own procedure.

National Commission for STs-

-The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (STs) is directly established by Article 338-A of the Constitution.
–In 1999, a new Ministry of Tribal Affairs was created to provide a sharp focus to the welfare and development of the STs because geographically and culturally, the STs are different from the SCs and their problems are also different from those of SCs.
–The 89th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2003 bifurcated the combined National Commission for SCs and STs into two separate bodies and a separate body came into existence i.e.National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (under Article 338-A).
-The separate National Commission for STs came into existence in 2004.
-It consists of a chairperson, a vice-chairperson and three other members.
-They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.
-Their conditions of service and tenure of office are determined by the President.
-The Commission presents an annual report to the President. (It can also submit a report as and when it thinks necessary.)
-The Commission is vested with the power to regulate its own procedure.

National Commission for Backward Classes-

-National Commission for Backward Classes is a Constitutional body (123rd constitutional amendment bill 2018 and 102nd amendment in constitution to make it constitutional body).
-The Bill removes power of NCSC to examine matters related to backward classes.
-The Bill seeks to make NCBC Constitutional body by inserting new article 338B in constitution composition, mandate, functions and various officers of of NCBC.
-The Bill mentions that NCBC will comprise of five members appointed by President.
-Their tenure and conditions of service will also be decided by President through rules.
-The Bill gives NCBC powers of civil court while investigating or inquiring into any complaints.

Study Notes on Constitutional body (Part-II)

CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES IN INDIA

Constitutional bodies in India are the bodies or institutes that have its name mentioned in Indian constitution. It derives power directly from the constitution. Any type of change in mechanism of these bodies needs constitutional amendment.

Constitutional bodies in India are as follows-

Election Commission (Article 324)
Union Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)
State Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)
Finance Commission (Article-280)
National Commission for SCs (Article-338)
National Commission for STs (Article-338 A)
Comptroller and Auditor General of India (Article-148)
Attorney General of India (Article-76)
Advocate General of the State (Article-165)
Special officer for linguistic Minorities (Article-350 B)

State Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)-

-Articles 315 to 323 in Part XIV of the Constitution deal with the composition, appointment and removal of members, power and functions and independence of a SPSC.
-Commission consists of a chairman and other members appointed by the governor of the state.
-The chairman and members of the Commission hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 62 years, whichever is earlier.
-Although the chairman and members of a SPSC are appointed by the governor, they can be removed only by the president (and not by the governor). Conditions for removal are same as for the UPSC chairman and members.
–SPSC performs all those functions in respect of the state services as the UPSC does in relation to the Central services.
-The SPSC presents, annually, to the governor a report on its performance.
-It is concerned with the recruitment to the state services and advises the government, when consulted, on promotion and disciplinary matters.
-It is not concerned with the classification of services, pay and service conditions, cadre management, training and so on. These matters are handled by the Department of Personnel or the General Administration Department.

Note-
No qualifications are prescribed for the commission’s membership except that one-half of the members of the commission should be such persons who have held office for at least ten years either under the government of India or under the Government of a state.
-The governor can appoint one of the members of the SPSC as an acting chairman in the following two circumstances2:
(a) When the office of the chairman falls vacant; or
(b) When the chairman is unable to perform his functions due to absence or some other reason.

Joint State Public Service Commission (JSPSC)- A Statutory body
–The Constitution makes a provision for the establishment of a Joint State Public Service Commission (JSPSC) for two or more states. JSPSC can be created by an act of Parliament on the request of the state legislatures concerned. Thus, a JSPSC is a statutory and not a constitutional body.
-The chairman and members of a JSPSC are appointed by the president.
-They hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 62 years, whichever is earlier.
-They can be suspended or removed by the president.
-A JSPSC presents its annual performance report to each of the concerned state governors.

Provision related to UPSC in history-
-The Government of India Act of 1919, a Central Public
Service Commission was set up in 1926 and entrusted with the task of recruiting civil servants.
-The Government of India Act of 1935 provided for the establishment of not only a Federal Public Service Commission but also a Provincial Public Service Commission and Joint Public Service Commission for two or more provinces.

Finance Commission

– Article 280 of the Constitution of India provides for a Finance Commission as a quasi-judicial body.
– The Finance Commission consists of a chairman and four other members to be appointed by the president.
– They hold office for such period as specified by the president in his order. (eligible for reappointment)
– The chairman should be a person having experience in public affairs.
– The four other members should be selected from amongst the following:
1. A judge of high court or one qualified to be appointed as one.
2. A person who has specialised knowledge of finance and accounts of the government.
3. A person who has wide experience in financial matters and in administration.
4. A person who has special knowledge of economics.
– Functions of the Finance Commission is to make recommendations to the president of India on the following matters:
1. The distribution of the net proceeds of taxes to be shared between the Centre and the states, and the allocation between the states of the respective shares of such proceeds.
2. The principles that should govern the grants-in-aid to the states by the Centre (i.e., out of the consolidated fund of India).
3. The measures needed to augment the consolidated fund of a state to supplement the resources of the panchayats and the municipalities in the state on the basis of the recommendations made by the state finance commission.
4. Any other matter referred to it by the president in the interests of sound finance.
– The recommendations made by the Finance Commission are only of advisory nature. (Article 281- Recommendations of the Finance Commission)
– The commission submits its report to the president.

Monetary Policy Notes for SSC Exams

Monetary policy

Monetary policy refers to the policy of the central bank with regard to the use of monetary instruments under its control to achieve the goals specified in the Act. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is vested with the responsibility of conducting monetary policy. This responsibility is explicitly mandated under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.

The goal(s) of monetary policy:

The primary objective of monetary policy is to maintain price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth. Price stability is a necessary precondition to sustainable growth. In May 2016, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Act, 1934 was amended to provide a statutory basis for the implementation of the flexible inflation targeting framework. The amended RBI Act also provides for the inflation target to be set by the Government of India, in consultation with the Reserve Bank, once in every five years. Accordingly, the Central Government has notified in the Official Gazette 4 percent Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation as the target for the period from August 5, 2016, to March 31, 2021, with the upper tolerance limit of 6 per cent and the lower tolerance limit of 2 per cent.
The Central Government notified the following as factors that constitute the failure to achieve the inflation target:
(a) The average inflation is more than the upper tolerance level of the inflation target for any three consecutive quarters; or
(b) The average inflation is less than the lower tolerance level for any three consecutive quarters.
Prior to the amendment in the RBI Act in May 2016, the flexible inflation targeting framework was governed by an Agreement on Monetary Policy Framework between the Government and the Reserve Bank of India of February 20, 2015.


Instruments of Monetary Policy

There are several direct and indirect instruments that are used for implementing monetary policy.

Repo Rate: The (fixed) interest rate at which the Reserve Bank provides the short-term loan (overnight liquidity) to banks against the collateral of government and other approved securities under the liquidity adjustment facility (LAF).

Reverse Repo Rate: The (fixed) interest rate – currently 50 bps below the repo rate – at which the Reserve Bank absorbs liquidity, on an overnight basis, from banks against the collateral of eligible government securities under the LAF.
The LAF consists of overnight as well as term repo auctions. Progressively, the Reserve Bank has increased the proportion of liquidity injected under fine-tuning variable rate repo auctions of tenors ranging between overnight and 56 days. The aim of term repo is to help develop the inter-bank term money market, which in turn can set market-based benchmarks for pricing of loans and deposits, and hence improve transmission of monetary policy. The Reserve Bank also conducts variable interest rate reverse repo auctions, as necessitated by the market conditions.

Marginal Standing Facility (MSF): A facility under which scheduled commercial banks can borrow additional amount of overnight money from the Reserve Bank by dipping into their Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) portfolio up to a limit [currently two per cent of their net demand and time liabilities deposits (NDTL)] at a penal rate of interest, currently 50 basis points above the repo rate. This provides a safety valve against unanticipated liquidity shocks to the banking system.
The MSF rate and reverse repo rate determine the corridor for the daily movement in the weighted average call money rate.

Bank Rate: It is the rate at which the Reserve Bank is ready to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial papers. The Bank Rate is published under Section 49 of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. This rate has been aligned to the MSF rate and, therefore, changes automatically as and when the MSF rate changes alongside policy repo rate changes.

Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): The average daily balance that a bank shall maintain with the Reserve Bank as a share of such per cent of its NDTL that the Reserve Bank may notify from time to time in the Gazette of India.

Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR): The share of NDTL that banks shall maintain in safe and liquid assets, such as unencumbered government securities, cash, and gold. Changes in SLR often influence the availability of resources in the banking system for lending to the private sector.

Open Market Operations (OMOs): These include both outright purchase and sale of government securities for injection and absorption of durable liquidity, respectively.

Market Stabilisation Scheme (MSS): This instrument for monetary management was introduced in 2004. Surplus liquidity of a more enduring nature arising from large capital inflows is absorbed through the sale of short-dated government securities and treasury bills. The cash so mobilized is held in a separate government account with the Reserve Bank.

Study Notes on Constitutional body

CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES IN INDIA

Constitutional bodies in India are the bodies or institutes that have its name mentioned in Indian constitution. It derives power directly from the constitution. Any type of change in mechanism of these bodies needs constitutional amendment.

Constitutional bodies in India are as follows-

Election Commission (Article 324)
Union Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)
State Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)
Finance Commission (Article-280)
National Commission for SCs (Article-338)
National Commission for STs (Article-338 A)
Comptroller and Auditor General of India (Article-148)
Attorney General of India (Article-76)
Advocate General of the State (Article-165)
Special officer for linguistic Minorities (Article-350 B)

Election Commission (Article 324)-

–Article 324 of the Constitution provides that the power of superintendence, direction and control of elections to parliament, state legislatures, the office of president of India and the office of vice-president of India shall be vested in the election commission.
-The appointment of the chief election commissioner and other election commissioners made by the president.
-The chief election commissioner and the two other election commissioners have equal powers and receive equal salary, allowances and other perquisites, which are similar to those of a judge of the Supreme Court. (On 16 October 1989, the president appointed two more election commissioners)
-They hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
– Some Important functions are:
1. To determine the territorial areas of the electoral constituencies throughout the country on the basis of the Delimitation Commission Act of Parliament.
2. To prepare and periodically revise electoral rolls and to register all eligible voters.
3. To notify the dates and schedules of elections and to scrutinise nomination papers.
4. To grant recognition to political parties and allot election symbols to them.
5. To advise the president on matters relating to the disqualifications of the members of Parliament.
6. To advise the governor on matters relating to the disqualifications of the members of state legislature.
7.To register political parties for the purpose of elections and grant them the status of national or state parties on the basis of their poll performance.

Note:
The Constitution has not prescribed the following criterias regarding Election commission-
-the qualifications (legal, educational, administrative or judicial) of the members of the Election Commission.
-the term of the members of the Election Commission.
-the retiring election commissioners from any further appointment by the government.



Union Public Service Commission (Article-315 to 323)-

–Articles 315 to 323 in Part XIV of the Constitution contain elaborate provisions regarding the composition, appointment and removal of members along with the independence, powers and functions of the UPSC.
-The UPSC consists of a chairman and other members appointed by the president of India.
-The chairman and members of the Commission hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
-The President can remove the chairman or any other member of UPSC from the office under the following circumstances:
(a) If he is adjudged an insolvent (that is, has gone bankrupt)
(b) If he engages, during his term of office, in any paid employment outside the duties of his office
(c) If he is, in the opinion of the president, unfit to continue in office by reason of infirmity of mind or body
-Important functions are:
1.It conducts examinations for appointments to the all-India services, Central services and public services of the centrally administered territories.
2.It assists the states (if requested by two or more states to do so) in framing and operating schemes of joint recruitment for any services for which candidates possessing special qualifications are required.
3.It is consulted on the matters related to personnel management.
4.It serves all or any of the needs of a state on the request of the state governor and with the approval of the president of India.
-The UPSC presents, annually, to the president a report on its performance.
-It is concerned with the recruitment to the all-India services and Central services—group A and group B and advises the government, when consulted, on promotion and disciplinary matters.
-It is not concerned with the classification of services, pay and service conditions, cadre management, training, and so on. These matters are handled by the Department of Personnel and Training—one of the three departments of the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions.

Note-
-No qualifications are prescribed for the Commission’s membership except that one-half of the members of the Commission should be such persons who have held office for
at least ten years either under the Government of India or under the government of a state.
The President can appoint one of the members of the UPSC as an acting chairman in the following two circumstances:
(a) When the office of the chairman falls vacant; or
(b) When the chairman is unable to perform his functions due to absence or some other reason.

Important Notes On Fundamental RIghts

Notes On Indian Polity: Fundamental rights
Originally, the Constitution provided for seven Fundamental Rights / मूलतः, संविधान में सात मौलिक अधिकारों के लिए प्रदान किया:-
1. Right to equality (Articles 14–18) / समानता का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 14–18)
2. Right to freedom (Articles 19–22) / स्वतंत्रता का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 19–22)
3. Right against exploitation (Articles 23–24) / शोषण के विरुद्ध अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 23–24)
4. Right to freedom of religion (Articles 25–28) / धर्म की स्वतंत्रता का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 25–28)
5. Cultural and educational rights (Articles 29–30) / सांस्कृतिक और शैक्षिक अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 29–30)
6. Right to property (Article 31) / संपत्ति का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 31)
7. Right to constitutional remedies (Article 32) / संवैधानिक उपचार का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 32)

The right to property was deleted from the Fundamental Rights by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978. It is made a legal right under Article 300-A of the Constitution. So, at present, there are only six Fundamental Rights. / संपत्ति के अधिकार को 44 वें संशोधन कानून, 1978 द्वारा मौलिक अधिकारों से हटा दिया गया था. इसे संविधान के अनुच्छेद 300-A के तहत एक कानूनी अधिकार बनाया गया है. इसलिए वर्तमान में, केवल छह मौलिक अधिकार हैं.

1. Right to equality (Articles 14–18)/ समानता का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 14–18)

(a) Equality before law and equal protection of laws (Article 14)./ कानून से पहले समानता और कानूनों की समान सुरक्षा(अनुच्छेद 14)
(b) Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion ,race, caste, sex or place of birth (Article 15)./ धर्म, वंश, जाति, लिंग या जन्म स्थान के आधार पर भेदभाव का निषेध(अनुच्छेद 15)
(c) Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment (Article 16)./ सार्वजनिक रोजगार के मामलों में अवसर की समानता(अनुच्छेद 16)
(d) Abolition of untouchability and prohibition of its practice (Article 17)./ अस्पृश्यता का उन्मूलन और इस प्रथा का प्रतिबंध (अनुच्छेद 17)
(e) Abolition of titles except military and academic (Article 18)./ सैन्य और शैक्षिक को छोड़कर उपाधि का उन्मूलन (अनुच्छेद 18)

2. Right to freedom (Articles 19–22)/ स्वतंत्रता का अधिकार(अनुच्छेद 19 -22)

(a) Protection of six rights regarding freedom of/: स्वतंत्रता के संबंध में छह अधिकारों का संरक्षण
(i)speech and expression/ भाषण और अभिव्यक्ति,
(ii) assembly/ सभा,
(iii) association/ संस्था,
(iv) movement/ आंदोलन,
(v) residence, and / निवास, और
(vi) profession (Article 19)./ व्यवसाय (अनुच्छेद 19)

(b) Protection in respect of conviction for offenses (Article 20)./ अपराधों के लिए सजा के संबंध में संरक्षण (अनुच्छेद 20)
(c) Protection of life and personal liberty (Article 21)./ जीवन और व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता का संरक्षण (अनुच्छेद 21)
(d) Right to elementary education (Article 21A)./ प्राथमिक शिक्षा का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 21A)
(e) Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases(Article 22)./ कुछ मामलों में गिरफ्तारी और निरोध के खिलाफ संरक्षण (अनुच्छेद 22)

3. Right against exploitation (Articles23–24)/ शोषण के विरुद्ध अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 23-24)

(a) Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labor.(Article 23)./ मनुष्यों और मजदूरों में यातायात का निषेध (अनुच्छेद 23)
(b) Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. (Article 24)./ कारखानों, आदि में बच्चों के रोजगार का निषेध (अनुच्छेद 24)

4. Right to freedom of religion (Article 25–28)/ धर्म की स्वतंत्रता का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 25-28)

(a) Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion (Article 25)./ विवेक और स्वतंत्र पेशे की स्वतंत्रता, धर्म का प्रचार (अनुच्छेद 25)
(b) Freedom to manage religious affairs (Article 26)./ धार्मिक मामलों का प्रबंधन करने की स्वतंत्रता (अनुच्छेद 26)
(c) Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any religion (Article 27)./ किसी भी धर्म को बढ़ावा देने के लिए करों के भुगतान से स्वतंत्रता (अनुच्छेद 27)
(d) Freedom from attending religious instruction or worship in certain educational institutions (Article 28)./ कुछ शिक्षण संस्थानों में धार्मिक अनुदेश या पूजा में शामिल होने की स्वतंत्रता (अनुच्छेद 28)

5. Cultural and educational rights (Articles 29–30)/ सांस्कृतिक और शैक्षिक अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 29-30)

(a) Protection of language, script and culture of minorities (Article 29)./ अल्पसंख्यकों की भाषा, लिपि और संस्कृति का संरक्षण (अनुच्छेद 29)
(b) Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions (Article 30)./ शैक्षिक संस्थानों की स्थापना और प्रशासन के लिए अल्पसंख्यकों का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 30)

6. Right to constitutional remedies(Article 32)/ संवैधानिक उपचार का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 32)

Supreme court can issue an order or following writs for the enforcement of the fundamental rights /सुप्रीम कोर्ट मौलिक अधिकारों को लागू करने के लिए निम्नलिखित आदेश या प्रादेश जारी कर सकता है :-
(i) Habeas Corpus,/ बन्दी प्रत्यक्षीकरण
(ii) Mandamus, / परमादेश
(iii) Prohibition, / निषेध
(iv) Certiorari, and / प्रमाणिकता, और
(v) Quo warrento (Article 32)./ क्यूओ वार-रेंटो (अनुच्छेद 32)

Study Notes on Condensation

Condensation:

Condensation is the transformation of gaseous form of water into solid form i.e. ice and liquid form i.e. water.

Mechanism of Condensation

The mechanism of condensation depends upon the amount of relative humidity present in the air. When the air achieves 100 per cent relative humidity, it is called as saturated air (no more water vapour can added to it). The temperature at which air becomes saturated is known as dew point and condensation starts only at this point. If the temperature at dew point is above freezing point condensation occurs in the form of fog, rainfall, etc. On the other hand if the dew point is below freezing point condensation occurs in the form of snow, frost, etc.

How saturation of air is achieved

Method 1: When the absolute humidity at a given temperature is raised equal to the humidity retaining capacity of the air.

Method 2: When the temperature of the air is reduced to such an extent that the humidity capacity becomes equal to its absolute humidity.

Concept of Adiabatic change of temperature

If the change in temperature of air takes place by the ascent and descent of air and no addition or subtraction of heat occurs then this process is known as adiabatic change of temperature. When the air is warmer than the surrounding air-mass, it ascends. Due to upward movement of air, volume increases and the temperature decreases. As the dew point is achieved, condensation process starts and leads to formation of clouds, fog and ultimately leads to precipitation.Thus instability of air causes different weather phenomenon. In the process explained above there is no addition orOn the other hand if the dew point is not achieved, the air becomes colder than surrounding air. Thus the air descends and becomes cooler. This leads to stability of air and weather phenomenon get hampered

GATEWAY TO SSC CGL : GEOGRAPHY STUDY NOTES

Earth Latitude and Longitude
Earth Latitude
• Imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator. Measured as an angle whose apex is at the centre of the earth.
• The equator represents 0° latitude, while the North Pole is 90° N and the South Pole 90° S

• 23½° N represents Tropic of Cancer while 23½° S represents Tropic of Capricorn.
• 66½° N represents Arctic Circle while 66½° S represents Antarctic Circle.
• There are total 181 latitudes including the equator. Each parallel of latitude is a circle, but they are not equal.
• The circle becomes smaller towards the poles. Equator is the ‘Greatest Circle’ that can be drawn on the earth’s surface.
• The distance between any two parallels of latitude is always equal.
1 degree lat. = 111km.

Earth Longitude
• It is the angular distance measured from die centre of the earth. On the globe the lines of longitude are drawn as a series of semicircles that extend from the North Pole to the South Pole through the equator. They are also called meridians.
• The distance between any two meridians is not equal.
At the equator, 1 degree = 111 km.  At 30°N or S, it is 96.5 km.  It goes on decreasing this way until it is zero at the poles.
• There are 360 meridians of longitude. The prime meridian is a longitude of 00, passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich near London.
• This meridian is taken by geographers to divide the earth into the eastern and the western hemispheres.
• Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle. 180° meridian (International Date Line) lies exactly opposite to 0° meridian. Such points are called Antipodal Points.
• The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each being 15° or 1 hour apart in time (4 minutes / degree).

Longitude and Time
• Places that are on the same meridian have the same local (sun) time. Since the earth makes one complete revolution of 360° in 24 hours, it passes through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
• The earth rotates from west to east, hence places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time whereas places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time.
• India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30°, has adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5°E for the standard time which is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).
International Date Line
• It is the 180° meridian running over the Pacific Ocean, deviating at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa and Gilbert Islands. It is a zig-zag line
• Travelers crossing the Date Line from west to east (i.e., from Japan to USA) repeat a day and travelers crossing it from east to west (i.e., from USA to Japan) lose a day.
Important Parallels of Latitude
1. The Tropic of Cancer : It is in the northern hemisphere at an angular distance of 23 1/2° (23°30’N) from the equator.
2. The Tropic of Capricorn : It is in the southern hemisphere at an angular distance of 23 1/2° (23°30’S) from the equator.
3. The Arctic Circle : It lies at a distance of 66 1/2° (66°30’N) north of the equator.
4. The Antarctic Circle : It lies at a distance of 66 1/2° (66°30’S) south of the equator. There are two solstices each year, called the Summer Solstice and the Winter Solstice.
Summer Solstice : The day of 21st June when the sun is vertically overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N).
Winter Solstice : The day of 22nd December when the sun is vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn (23°30’S).

Meridians of Longitude
The semi-circles running from pole to pole or from north to south are known as meridians of longitude and distance between them is measured in degrees of longitude. Greenwich Meridian or Prime Meridian with a value of 0° longitude serves as a common base for numbering meridians of longitude lying on either side of it — east as well as west. There are 360 meridians including Prime Meridian. Each degree of a longitude is divided into sixty equal parts, each part is called a minute. Each minute is again divided into sixty equal parts, each part being called a second.
Local Time : Local time of any place is 12 noon when the sun is exactly overhead. It will vary from the Greenwich time at the rate of four minutes for each degree of longitude.
Greenwich Mean Time : The time at 0° longitude is called Greenwich Mean Time. It is based on local time of the meridian passing through Greenwich near London.
Indian Standard Time : It is fixed on the mean of 82 1/2°E Meridian, a place near Allahabad. It is 5 1/2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.